Organizational Behaviour (PGCO–I): Unit-wise Comprehensive Questions and Answers for NSOU M.Com.

Subject: Organizational Behaviour (PGCO – I)

Course: PGDP – NSOU M.Com.

Unit I: Organization Theory and Organizational Behavior 

Unit II: Individual Behaviour in Organization

Unit III: Group Behaviour in Organization

Unit IV: Group Decision Making and Communication

Unit V: Motivation

Unit VI: Leadership 

Unit VII: Organisational Culture and Stress Management 

Unit VIII: Organisational Development 

Subject: Organizational Behaviour (PGCO – I)

Course: PGDP – NSOU M.Com.

Unit I: Organization Theory and Organizational Behavior 

Q. 1. Name two characteristics of organisation.

Answer: Two characteristics of organisation are:

(i) Common Purpose: According to Barnard, an organisation is a consciously created activity of two or more persons who are willing to contribute to a common purpose. Every organisation exists to achieve some common objective or goal.

(ii) Joint Contribution: Organisation is formed when people work together and contribute jointly towards the achievement of a common objective. Individual efforts are coordinated and integrated through organisation.

The unit further mentions that an organisation is characterized by two or more persons, common purpose, conscious activities, communication, and joint contribution. 

Q. 2. What are the types of organisation structure?

Answer: The organisation structure can broadly be of two types:

(i) Mechanistic Structure:

Mechanistic structure is a rigid and highly formal structure. It is not easily changeable and therefore is not suitable for an ever-changing dynamic environment. It emphasizes formal rules, procedures and hierarchy.

(ii) Organic Structure: Organic structure is flexible and informal. It can be redesigned easily to cope with changing situations and environmental requirements. It provides adaptability and responsiveness.

The study material further states that in the modern world neither a completely mechanistic nor a fully organic structure exists. Most organisations use a mixture of both structures, depending upon factors such as strategy, size, technology and environment. 

Q. 3. State the relationship between span of control and levels of structure

Answer: There is an inverse relationship between span of control and levels of structure.

Span of control means the number of subordinates whom a superior can effectively manage and supervise. Levels of management refer to the number of hierarchical layers in the organisational structure. The study material states that:

“When span is larger, levels will be less, because one manager there will manage maximum number of subordinates.”

Therefore:

(i) A wider span of control results in fewer levels of management and a flatter organisational structure.

(ii) A narrow span of control results in more managerial levels and a taller organisational structure.

The text also explains that more levels increase communication time, create the possibility of information distortion, require more managers and increase overhead costs. Hence, organisations generally prefer a flatter structure with fewer levels whenever possible. 

Q. 4. Give an example of Functional Departmentation

Answer: An example of Functional Departmentation is:

Production Department, Marketing Department and Finance Department.

The study material explains that departmentation may be based on functions. Similar activities are grouped together to facilitate supervision and coordination. This leads to Functional Departmentation, where departments are formed according to specialised functions such as production, marketing and finance. 

Q. 5. Which of the resources is the important?

Answer: Human Resource is the most important resource.

The study material clearly states that among all resources such as physical resources, financial resources and human resources, human resource is the most important because only human resource can:

(i) Activate other resources.

(ii) Sustain competitive advantages.

(iii) Create value.

Since all other resources become productive only through human effort and management, human resource occupies the most important position in an organisation. 

Q. 6. Name two work-related behaviour.

Answer: Two work-related behaviours are:

(i) Productivity: It refers to the degree of worker's efficiency and effectiveness in performing work.

(ii) Absenteeism: It refers to the number of days workers remain absent from work.

The study material identifies several work-related behaviours, namely productivity, absenteeism, worker turnover, job satisfaction, organisational citizenship behaviour and deviant workplace behaviour. Any two of these may be mentioned. 

Q. 7. Name the contributing discipline that contributed the concept of personality to OB

Answer: Psychology is the contributing discipline that contributed the concept of Personality to Organisational Behaviour (OB). The unit explains that OB has borrowed several dimensions of individual behaviour from Psychology. These include:

(i) Value System

(ii) Personality

(iii) Attitude

(iv) Perception

(v) Learning Process

(vi) Job Satisfaction

(vii) Job Stress

Therefore, the concept of personality in OB has been contributed by the discipline of Psychology. 

Q. 8. In how many groups the countries were divided under each dimension of Kluckhohn-Strodback framework?

Answer: Under each dimension of the Kluckhohn–Strodback Framework, countries were divided into three groups. The framework classifies countries according to different cultural orientations. For every dimension, nations are grouped into three categories based on their dominant cultural characteristics and values. Thus, each dimension of the Kluckhohn–Strodback Framework divides countries into three groups. 

Q. 9. What are the skills that a manager should possess ?

Answer: According to the discussion under “Challenges of Managers”, a manager should possess three important skills for effective performance. These are Technical Skill, Conceptual Skill and Human Skill. The importance of these skills varies according to the level of management. 

Technical Skill:

Technical skill refers to the ability to perform specialised activities and understand the technical aspects of work. According to the text, lower level managers require more technical skill because they are directly connected with operational activities and day-to-day functioning of the organisation. Technical competence helps them supervise workers effectively and solve operational problems. 

Conceptual Skill:

Conceptual skill refers to the ability to understand the organisation as a whole and to perceive relationships among different organisational activities. The text states that top-level managers need mostly conceptual skill because they are responsible for long-term planning, policy formulation and overall direction of the organisation. Conceptual skill enables them to view organisational problems in a broader perspective. 

Human Skill:

Human skill is considered the most important skill among all managerial skills. Human resource is regarded as the most important resource because it alone can activate other resources, sustain competitive advantages and create value. Therefore, managing human beings becomes the biggest challenge for managers. 

The text further explains that managers at all levels—top, middle and lower—require human skill equally for effective performance. Human skill involves understanding human behaviour, motivations, attitudes and reactions. Since no two human beings are identical and the same person may behave differently at different times, understanding human behaviour is difficult. However, behaviour always has a cause, and if the cause-and-effect relationship is identified, behaviour can become predictable. Organisational Behaviour provides scientific knowledge for understanding such behaviour and helps managers solve people-related problems. 

Thus, a manager should possess technical skill, conceptual skill and human skill, with human skill being the most important because it is essential for dealing effectively with people at all levels of the organisation. 

Q. 10. How does size influence structure of organisations?

Answer: Size is one of the important factors influencing the structure of an organisation. The organisational structure changes as the size of the organisation increases. The text clearly states that “Size influences structure.” 

When the number of employees increases, the scope for specialisation also increases. This creates a need for horizontal differentiation, whereby work is divided into specialised functions and departments. Different individuals and groups become responsible for different organisational activities. 

A larger organisation also requires vertical differentiation. As the number of departments and employees grows, additional managerial levels become necessary to coordinate the activities of various departments. Therefore, more hierarchical levels are introduced in the organisation. 

With increasing size, formalisation becomes necessary. Rules, procedures and regulations must be established to control organisational activities effectively. Formalisation helps maintain coordination and control over a large workforce. 

The text therefore concludes that size is a notable contributor to organisational structure because:

i. More employees create greater scope for specialisation.

ii. Horizontal differentiation becomes necessary.

iii. Vertical differentiation is required for coordination.

iv. Formalisation is needed to control activities.

v. Organisational complexity increases with growth in size. 

Hence, as the size of an organisation increases, its structure becomes more differentiated, formalised and complex in order to achieve effective coordination and control. 

Q. 11. Define the concept of ultimate responsibility.

Answer: Ultimate Responsibility is one of the important features of a good organisational structure. It is closely related to the concept of delegation of authority. 

According to the text, when authority is delegated, authority flows from superiors to subordinates. As a result, subordinates perform assigned duties and remain accountable to their superiors. However, even after delegation, the superior remains finally responsible for the tasks assigned to subordinates. This principle is known as Ultimate Responsibility. 

The concept emphasises that although authority may be delegated, responsibility cannot be transferred completely. The superior continues to bear final accountability for the successful completion of organisational work. If a subordinate fails to perform properly, the superior cannot avoid responsibility by claiming that the work had been delegated. 

The principle can be explained as follows:

i. Authority may be delegated from superior to subordinate.

ii. Subordinates perform duties and remain accountable to their superiors.

iii. Final responsibility for organisational work rests with the superior.

iv. Delegation does not eliminate the superior’s accountability.

v. One can delegate authority but cannot delegate responsibility. 

Therefore, Ultimate Responsibility means that the superior remains ultimately accountable for the performance of subordinates even after delegating authority to them. It is based on the principle that authority can be delegated, but responsibility cannot be delegated. 

Q. 12. What are the main characteristics of system approach

Answer: The Systems Approach is one of the important modern theories of organisation. According to this approach, a system is an assembly of a number of things that are connected and interdependent. A system cannot work in isolation because all its components are related to one another. An organisation is viewed as a system and therefore possesses all the characteristics of a system. The main characteristics of the Systems Approach are as follows:

i. A System is a Sub-system of a Bigger System:

Every system forms part of a larger system. The text gives the example that West Bengal is a sub-system of India. Similarly, an organisation is a part of a larger social and economic environment. 

ii. A System Contains Sub-systems:

Every system is composed of several smaller systems. Just as West Bengal consists of many districts, an organisation consists of many departments and units. 

iii. Dependence on Sub-systems:

A system is related to and dependent on its sub-systems. The performance of the whole system depends upon the functioning of its constituent parts. 

iv. Interrelationship among Sub-systems:

Sub-systems are not independent. They are interrelated and influence one another. Changes in one sub-system affect other sub-systems. 

v. A System is More than the Aggregate of its Parts:

A system is not merely the sum of its sub-systems. It possesses qualities and characteristics that emerge from the interaction of its various components. 

vi. Behaviour of a System Cannot be Understood in Isolation:

Without analysing both the larger system and the sub-systems, the behaviour of any system cannot be properly understood. 

Characteristics of Organisation as a System:

When an organisation is viewed as a system, it possesses the following features:

(i) It is dynamic.

(ii) It is multidisciplinary and multidimensional.

(iii) It contains multiple variables.

(iv) It is probabilistic and adaptive.

(v) It is open at all ends and is not a closed system. 

Thus, the Systems Approach views the organisation as an open, dynamic and interdependent system whose behaviour can be understood only by studying its various sub-systems and their interactions. 

Q. 13. How does globalisation pose problems to modern managers?

Answer: Globalisation is identified in the text as one of the major recent challenges faced by managers. Due to globalisation, labour and capital move freely from one country to another, and many national companies have been transformed into multinational companies (MNCs). This development has created several new difficulties for managers. 

The problems posed by globalisation to modern managers are as follows:

i. International Assignments:

Managers are now required to accept off-and-on foreign assignments. They often have to work in different countries and adapt themselves to unfamiliar environments and cultures. 

ii. Managing People from Different Countries:

Managers must deal with bosses, peers and subordinates who may belong to different countries. Managing such a diverse workforce becomes difficult because people differ in culture, values, customs and behaviour. 

iii. Difficulty in Understanding Human Behaviour:

The text states that understanding even the members of one’s own family is difficult. Therefore, understanding people from different countries, cultures, creeds, colours and castes becomes much more complicated. Globalisation makes the study of human behaviour increasingly difficult and unpredictable. 

iv. Cultural Differences:

Globalisation brings people of different cultural backgrounds together. Differences in beliefs, traditions, attitudes and lifestyles create barriers to communication and cooperation. Managers must learn to manage these cultural differences effectively. 

v. Increased Complexity in Human Resource Management:

Because organisations now employ people from various countries and backgrounds, workforce diversity increases significantly. Managing diverse expectations, attitudes and behavioural patterns becomes a major challenge. 

vi. Greater Uncertainty in Organisational Behaviour:

As people from different social and cultural backgrounds interact within the organisation, their responses become more varied and difficult to predict. This increases managerial problems and complicates decision-making. 

In conclusion, globalisation has transformed business organisations into multinational entities and has increased the complexity of managing people. Managers today must work across national boundaries, interact with culturally diverse individuals and cope with more complicated and unpredictable human behaviour. Therefore, globalisation poses significant challenges to modern managers.

Q. 14. What you mean by "gender diversity" in workforce?

Answer: Gender diversity in workforce refers to the presence and participation of both male and female employees in an organisation. According to the discussion on workforce diversity, earlier the number of female workers in organisations was very limited and women were concentrated only in some selected professions such as teaching and reception work. However, with socio-economic changes and increasing opportunities, women are now participating in almost every field of employment.

The study material points out that in developed countries nearly 45 percent of workers are female. In developing countries like India also, women are now competing equally with men in different occupations. As a result, organisations are experiencing gender diversity in their workforce.

Gender diversity creates a challenge for managers because the needs, preferences, attitudes and expectations of male and female employees are not always the same. Therefore, managers have to understand and manage employees with different backgrounds, interests and requirements. Workforce diversity, including gender diversity, has become an important feature of modern organisations and one of the significant challenges faced by managers in the contemporary business environment. 

Q. 15. According to Hofstede, narrate the culture of power distance.

Answer: According to Hofstede’s cultural framework, Power Distance refers to the degree to which the members of a society accept that power is distributed unequally among people and institutions.

In a high power distance culture, inequality in power is accepted as normal. Subordinates expect managers and superiors to make decisions, and authority is rarely questioned. There is a strong hierarchy in organisations, and people generally accept unequal distribution of power and privileges. Employees tend to show greater respect for authority and prefer clear directions from their superiors.

On the other hand, in a low power distance culture, people believe that power should be distributed more equally. Employees are more willing to participate in decision-making and are comfortable expressing their opinions before superiors. Relationships between managers and subordinates are comparatively informal, and authority is often questioned or discussed.

Thus, power distance explains how people in different societies perceive and react to inequalities in authority, status and power. It influences organisational structure, leadership style, communication patterns and employee behaviour within organisations. Hofstede considered power distance as one of the important dimensions for understanding cultural differences among nations and organisations. 

Q. 16. Give a brief discussion on the factors that influence the structure of organisation.

Answer: Organisation structure refers to the pattern in which different components of an organisation are interrelated. It represents the relationship among people, policies and the chain of command within an organisation. The structure of an organisation is influenced by several important factors.

(i) Strategy:

Every organisation develops a structure to achieve its objectives and implement its overall strategy. Since strategies vary from one organisation to another, organisational structures also differ.

The study material identifies three broad types of strategies:

(a) Innovation Strategy:

This strategy emphasizes creativity and development of new products, services or methods. Innovation requires flexibility and adaptability. Therefore, an organic structure is most suitable for organisations following innovation strategy.

(b) Cost-Minimization Strategy:

The objective of this strategy is to reduce costs and increase efficiency. Such a strategy requires standardisation, formalisation and strict control. Therefore, a mechanistic structure is more appropriate.

(c) Imitation Strategy:

Under this strategy, organisations imitate successful products or practices of others. A combination of mechanistic and organic structures is generally required in such cases.

(ii) Size:

Size significantly influences organisational structure. As the number of employees increases, greater specialisation becomes necessary. Large organisations require horizontal differentiation through specialised departments and vertical differentiation through additional managerial levels for coordination. Formalisation also increases to maintain control over organisational activities. Therefore, size is an important determinant of organisational structure.

(iii) Technology:

Technology is a major determinant of organisational structure. The effectiveness of an organisation depends upon the fit between its technology and structure. The study material mentions three types of technology:

(a) Unit Production Technology

(b) Mass Production Technology

(c) Process Production Technology

According to Joan Woodward (1965), organic structure is most suitable for unit production and process production technologies, whereas mechanistic structure is more appropriate for mass production technology.

Charles Perrow further classified technology into routine and non-routine technology. Routine technology matches mechanistic structure, whereas non-routine technology requires organic structure. Modern information technology is also associated with virtual organisations.

(iv) Environment:

Organisations are open systems and therefore are greatly influenced by their environment. The nature of the environment largely determines the type of structure required. The study material classifies environment into three categories:

(a) PlacId Environment:

A placid environment is relatively stable and unchanging. Mechanistic structure is suitable under such conditions.

(b) Disturbed Environment:

A disturbed environment is more complex and less stable. A combination of mechanistic and organic structures is generally appropriate.

(c) Turbulent Environment:

A turbulent environment is highly dynamic and uncertain. In such circumstances, an organic structure becomes essential because flexibility and adaptability are required.

Thus, the major factors influencing organisational structure are strategy, size, technology and environment. The choice between mechanistic and organic structure depends upon the nature of these factors. Modern organisations generally adopt a combination of both forms in order to respond effectively to changing business conditions.

Q. 17. State how systems approach and contingency approach are related to each other.

Answer: The Contingency or Situational Approach emerged out of the Systems Approach. The Systems Approach views an organisation as a system consisting of a number of interrelated and interdependent sub-systems. It considers the organisation as an open and adaptive system whose different parts continuously interact with one another and with the external environment. 

The Contingency Approach accepts the basic assumptions of the Systems Approach. It accepts the interdependent and organic nature of organisations. It also accepts the open and adaptive character of organisations. However, it goes a step further and argues that no single organisational design, structure or method is suitable for all organisations and all situations. 

According to this approach, the response of one sub-system is contingent upon the environment and upon other systems and sub-systems. Therefore, organisational behaviour and organisational decisions vary from organisation to organisation and from situation to situation.

The relationship between Systems Approach and Contingency Approach can be explained as follows:

Firstly, the Contingency Approach is derived from the Systems Approach.

Secondly, both approaches regard the organisation as an open system.

Thirdly, both recognise the interdependence among various sub-systems of an organisation.

Fourthly, both emphasise adaptation to environmental changes.

However, the Contingency Approach adds that the same type of system may not always produce the same type of sub-system or result. It rejects the idea of universal principles and stresses that organisational actions should depend upon specific situations.

The main characteristics of the Contingency Approach are:

(i) Its function is entirely situational.

(ii) No organisational design is suitable for all situations.

(iii) No organisation can take absolute decisions.

(iv) All organisational actions are relative to different social, legal, political and economic factors.

Thus, the Contingency Approach is closely related to the Systems Approach because it develops from it and accepts its fundamental assumptions, while emphasizing that organisational effectiveness depends upon specific situations and environmental conditions. 

Q. 18. What are the recent challenges to OB?

Answer: The socio-economic environment has undergone radical changes in recent years. As a result, human behaviour has become more complicated and unpredictable. Since Organisational Behaviour is concerned with understanding and managing human behaviour in organisations, it faces several modern challenges.

The recent challenges to OB are discussed below:

i. Globalisation:

Globalisation has led to the free flow of labour and capital from one country to another. National companies have been transformed into multinational companies. As a result, managers have to accept foreign assignments and interact with bosses, peers and subordinates belonging to different countries. Understanding people of different countries, cultures, creeds, colours and castes has therefore become more difficult and complicated. Consequently, globalisation has emerged as a major challenge to OB. 

ii. Workforce Diversity:

Due to globalisation, the workforce consists of people from different countries and different cultural backgrounds, resulting in cultural diversity. Workforce diversity includes:

(a) Age Diversity:

The retirement age in the private sector is no longer rigid. Therefore, organisations may employ workers as old as eighty years as well as newly recruited workers of eighteen years. Their needs, productivity, attitudes and preferences differ considerably, creating management challenges.

(b) Gender Diversity:

Earlier, female participation in employment was limited to certain professions. Today, women participate in almost all occupations and compete equally with men. Since the needs and preferences of males and females are not identical, managers face additional challenges.

(c) Caste Diversity:

Because of reservation policies and changing social structures, members of SC, ST and OBC communities are increasingly occupying managerial and executive positions. This diversity creates new managerial challenges.

Thus, workforce diversity has become a significant challenge to OB. 

iii. Temporariness:

Modern organisations are characterised by temporary arrangements. Earlier, products remained in the market for many years; today their life cycle is much shorter. Similarly, full-time employment has given way to part-time and casual employment. Work design also changes frequently. A worker skilled today may become unskilled tomorrow due to technological changes. This growing uncertainty and unpredictability create challenges for managers and organisational behaviour. 

iv. Change and Innovation:

Continuous change has become necessary for organisational survival. Organisations can no longer rely on old products, methods or designs.

Innovation is the precondition for change. Innovation may be:

(a) Incremental Innovation – Addition of new features to existing products.

(b) Substantial Innovation – Major changes in product quality and packaging.

(c) Transformational Innovation – Complete replacement of old products by entirely new products.

Since change involves uncertainty and adjustment to new environments, it creates significant challenges for OB. 

v. Increasing Customer Service:

The service sector has become highly important and employs a large proportion of workers and managers. Unlike factory workers who primarily deal with machines, service employees interact directly with customers. Customer behaviour is often more unpredictable than machine behaviour. Therefore, managers must handle not only workers but also customer-related problems, making organisational behaviour more complex. 

vi. Technology:

Technology has become a dominant force in modern organisations. While technology enhances productivity, it also creates anxiety among workers because technological advancement may lead to job loss. Employees often fear retrenchment or golden handshakes, resulting in lower job satisfaction and motivation. Moreover, the emergence of knowledge workers with different expectations and needs has created additional managerial challenges. 

vii. Ethical Dilemma:

Ethical issues have become increasingly complex. Managers frequently face situations involving conflicting moral choices. Examples include bribery, whistle-blowing, performance evaluation and disciplinary decisions. Such ethical conflicts create stress, tension and burnout among employees and managers, making ethical decision-making a major challenge to OB. 

viii. Life-work Imbalance:

The distinction between personal life and working life is gradually disappearing. The reasons include:

(a) Managers of multinational companies often remain connected with employees working in different time zones, reducing personal time.

(b) Technological connectivity enables organisations to contact employees even during vacations.

(c) Increased working hours leave little time for personal enjoyment.

(d) Dual-career families often find it difficult to balance household and professional responsibilities.

These factors create stress and imbalance, posing a major challenge to organisational behaviour. 

Q. 19. Briefly discuss the disciplines that have contributed to the development of OB.

Answer: Organisational Behaviour is a multidisciplinary subject. Since it performs a highly complex role in understanding human behaviour within organisations, it borrows concepts and principles from several social sciences. These disciplines are known as the contributing disciplines of OB. 

(i) Psychology:

Psychology is an age-old social science dealing with the mental state of human beings and even animals. OB borrows several concepts relating to individual behaviour from psychology.

The major contributions of psychology to OB are:

(i) Value system

(ii) Personality

(iii) Attitude

(iv) Perception

(v) Learning process

(vi) Job satisfaction

(vii) Job stress

These concepts help in understanding individual behaviour in organisations. 

(ii) Sociology:

While psychology helps in understanding individual behaviour, sociology helps in understanding group behaviour. Sociology studies society and social relationships. Since groups are subsets of society, social principles are equally relevant to group activities.

The major contributions of sociology are:

(i) Group formation

(ii) Group properties

(iii) Group decision-making

(iv) Communication

(v) Conflict and its resolution

(vi) Power and politics

These concepts assist in understanding the dynamics of groups within organisations. 

(iii) Anthropology:

Anthropology is the science of human race and culture. It studies the evolution of human civilisation and cultural variations among different societies.

The contributions of anthropology to OB include:

(i) Organisational culture and its impact

(ii) Organisational development

(iii) Organisational change

(iv) Organisational values versus personal values

These concepts help organisations understand cultural influences on behaviour. 

(iv) Social Psychology:

Social Psychology represents a blend of psychology and sociology. It studies how individual behaviour changes in a group setting and how groups influence individuals.

Its contributions to OB include:

(i) Change from individualism to collectivism

(ii) Upholding individuality amidst group pressure

(iii) Reconciliation of individual aspirations with group goals

These concepts help in understanding the interaction between individuals and groups within organisations. 

Thus, Psychology, Sociology, Anthropology and Social Psychology have made significant contributions to the development of Organisational Behaviour as a distinct field of study. 

Q. 20. Discuss varying national cultures as identified by Hofstede.

Answer: Hofstede developed a framework for understanding variations in national cultures. The framework explains how people belonging to different countries differ in their values, attitudes and behaviour patterns. These cultural differences influence organisational practices, managerial behaviour and employee relations. 

The dimensions of national culture identified by Hofstede are as follows:

(i) Power Distance:

Power Distance refers to the degree to which members of a society accept unequal distribution of power. In societies with high power distance, authority and hierarchy are readily accepted. In societies with low power distance, people prefer equality and participation in decision-making. 

(ii) Individualism versus Collectivism:

This dimension indicates whether people place greater importance on individual interests or group interests. Individualistic cultures emphasise personal achievement, independence and individual goals. Collectivistic cultures emphasise group loyalty, cooperation and collective welfare. 

(iii) Masculinity versus Femininity:

Masculine cultures value achievement, success, competition, ambition and material rewards. Feminine cultures place greater emphasis on relationships, cooperation, quality of life and concern for others. 

(iv) Uncertainty Avoidance:

Uncertainty Avoidance refers to the extent to which people feel uncomfortable with uncertainty, ambiguity and unpredictable situations. Societies with high uncertainty avoidance prefer rules, regulations and structured situations. Societies with low uncertainty avoidance are more comfortable with risk, change and flexibility. 

These dimensions explain why managerial practices, organisational structures, leadership styles and employee expectations differ across countries. Hofstede’s framework therefore provides a useful basis for understanding cultural differences in the global context of organisational behaviour.

Subject: Organizational Behaviour (PGCO – I)

Course: PGDP – NSOU M.Com.

Unit II: Individual Behaviour in Organization

Q. 1. Name two inherited characteristics of individuals.

Answer: According to the unit, inherited characteristics are those traits that an individual inherits from parents. Examples mentioned include physique, intelligence, age, gender and religion. Any two inherited characteristics are:

(i) Physique

(ii) Intelligence

These inherited characteristics influence individual behaviour and are generally unchangeable. 

Q. 2. What is the critical test of learning?

Answer: Learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of experience. The unit clearly states that the critical test of learning is “change in behaviour.” If a person's behaviour changes permanently because of experience, learning has taken place. 

Q. 3. In how many ways reinforcement is done?

Answer: Reinforcement is usually done in four ways:

(i) Positive reinforcement

(ii) Negative reinforcement

(iii) Punishment

(iv) Extinction

These methods are used to strengthen desirable behaviour and discourage undesirable behaviour. 

Q. 4. Who is the pioneer of personality development?

Answer: Sigmund Freud is regarded as the pioneer of personality development. The unit states that Freud was a pioneering theorist on personality development and proposed a series of developmental stages that influence the formation of personality. 

Q. 5. What does MBTI stand for?

Answer: MBTI stands for Myers-Briggs Type Indicators. It was developed jointly by Myers and Briggs on the basis of Type Theory. The indicator classifies people according to combinations of personality traits such as Extraversion–Introversion, Sensing–Intuitive, Thinking–Feeling and Judging–Perceiving. 

Q. 6. Name two characteristics of perceiver that influence perception.

Answer: The unit identifies several characteristics of the perceiver that influence perception. Any two are:

(i) Learning

(ii) Attitude

Other characteristics include needs, interests, personality and experience. These factors cause different individuals to perceive the same object or situation differently. 

Q. 7. Name of moderating variable to Cognitive Dissonance Theory.

Answer: The moderating variables of Cognitive Dissonance Theory are:

(i) Importance

(ii) Uncontrollability

(iii) Reward

These variables determine the extent to which cognitive dissonance affects behaviour and attitude. 

Q. 8. What does ‘voice’ mean in the context of job satisfaction?

Answer: Voice refers to raising one’s voice against the causes of dissatisfaction.

In the context of job dissatisfaction, employees may respond actively and constructively by discussing problems, suggesting improvements and attempting to remove the causes of dissatisfaction rather than leaving the organisation. 

Q. 9. State the factors that influence job satisfaction.

Answer: The factors responsible for job satisfaction or dissatisfaction are:

(i) Job itself

(ii) Supervisor/Supervisor

(iii) Management style (centralisation or decentralisation)

(iv) Working condition

(v) Promotional opportunities

(vi) Performance evaluation technique

(vii) Pay and remuneration

These factors significantly affect employees’ attitudes, productivity, absenteeism and turnover. 

Q. 10. What do you mean “halo” effect?

Answer: Halo Effect refers to a situation where a perceiver gives judgement about a person by considering only one quality or one disqualification of the perceived person and ignores other relevant characteristics. For example, if a candidate is very charming and therefore selected without considering other qualities, it is called the halo effect. The opposite situation, where a person is judged negatively because of one unfavourable characteristic, is known as the horn effect. 

Q. 11. How does situation affect perception?

Answer: Situation is one of the three important components that influence perception. The other two components are the perceiver and the perceived object or target. Even when both the perceiver and the perceived object remain the same, perception may vary because of differences in the situation.

Situational characteristics influence the way an individual interprets a person, object or event. The same person may be perceived differently under different circumstances.

The unit explains this concept with examples. Suppose a person does not know Mr. X. When he first meets Mr. X in the company of Mr. Y, who is known to be a good person, he may form a favourable opinion about Mr. X and perceive him as a good person. However, if the same Mr. X is first seen in the company of Mr. Z, who is not regarded as a good person, the perception about Mr. X may become unfavourable. Thus, the situation surrounding the meeting changes the perception.

Another example concerns the perception of the rising sun. Every day a person sees the rising sun through the window of his bedroom. One day the same person sees the same rising sun from Tiger Hill at Darjeeling. Although the object perceived remains the same, the perception becomes different because the situation has changed.

Therefore, situation affects perception by providing a context within which people interpret events, objects and individuals. Changes in circumstances often lead to changes in perception. 

Q. 12. What is the impact of job dissatisfaction?

Answer: Job dissatisfaction has a significant impact on employees and organisations. The unit explains that dissatisfied employees generally respond in four different ways. These responses indicate the impact of job dissatisfaction.

(i) Exit:

Exit means leaving the organisation. An employee may resign, seek another job or quit the present employment when dissatisfaction becomes severe. This is an active and destructive response.

(ii) Voice:

Voice means raising one's voice against the causes of dissatisfaction. Employees attempt to improve conditions by discussing problems, making suggestions and seeking corrective measures. This is an active and constructive response.

(iii) Loyalty:

Loyalty refers to patiently waiting and hoping that conditions will improve in future. Employees continue to support the organisation despite dissatisfaction and expect management to solve the problems. This is a passive but constructive response.

(iv) Neglect:

Neglect means allowing conditions to worsen by reducing effort and interest in work. Employees may become careless, absent frequently, arrive late or reduce their performance. This is a passive and destructive response.

These four responses—Exit, Voice, Loyalty and Neglect—represent the major impacts of job dissatisfaction on employee behaviour and organisational effectiveness. 

Q. 13. Explain ENTP type of person.

Answer: ENTP is one of the personality types developed under the Myers-Briggs Type Indicators (MBTI). Myers and Briggs classified personality on the basis of four pairs of traits:

Extraverted versus Introverted (E versus I)

Sensing versus Intuitive (S versus N)

Thinking versus Feeling (T versus F)

Judging versus Perceiving (J versus P)

The ENTP personality type combines the following characteristics:

E – Extraverted

N – Intuitive

T – Thinking

P – Perceiving

Extraverted persons are outgoing and assertive. Intuitive persons focus on the “big picture” rather than merely observing details. Thinking persons use their head or brain while making decisions. Perceiving persons prefer expressing opinions rather than giving judgments about others.

The unit states that ENTP types are innovative and can be entrepreneurs. They possess creativity, originality and the ability to generate new ideas. Because of their innovative nature, they are suitable for entrepreneurial activities and ventures requiring imagination and initiative.

Thus, ENTP individuals are characterised by extraversion, intuition, logical thinking and perceiving orientation, making them innovative and entrepreneurial personalities. 

Q. 14. What do you mean by negative reinforcement?

Answer: Negative reinforcement is one of the four methods of reinforcement. It aims to encourage and elicit desired behaviour, but the method used is different from positive reinforcement.

In negative reinforcement, something that the learner dislikes is withdrawn or removed. By removing an unpleasant condition, the learner becomes motivated to repeat the desired behaviour in future.

Suppose an employee was earlier transferred to a remote place and disliked that place of work. Later, he is brought back to the Kolkata office. The withdrawal of the unpleasant condition acts as negative reinforcement. As a result, the learner becomes inspired to repeat the desired behaviour.

Therefore, negative reinforcement is a process in which an unpleasant or undesirable condition is removed in order to encourage the repetition of desired behaviour. 

Q. 15. How is learning reinforced? Give a brief note on reinforcement schedule.

Answer:

Learning reinforced:

Learning must be reinforced because learning that is not reinforced may gradually be forgotten. Reinforcement motivates and nurtures learning. It strengthens desirable behaviour and prevents undesirable behaviour. Through rewards or punishments, individuals are reminded about the consequences of their actions and are encouraged either to repeat favourable behaviour or refrain from undesirable behaviour.

Reinforcement is an important step in the learning process and is carried out in four ways:

(i) Positive Reinforcement:

Positive reinforcement aims at repetition of desired behaviour by providing the learner with something that he or she likes. Reinforcers may be primary, such as food and water, or secondary, such as status, praise and recognition. Receiving these rewards motivates the learner to repeat the desired behaviour.

(ii) Negative Reinforcement:

Negative reinforcement encourages desired behaviour by removing something that the learner dislikes. Withdrawal of an unpleasant condition motivates the learner to repeat the desired behaviour.

(iii) Punishment:

Punishment involves providing something unpleasant to the learner. The objective is to prevent undesirable behaviour. Examples include demotion and punishment transfer. The learner becomes cautious about repeating the undesirable act.

(iv) Extinction:

Extinction involves withdrawing something pleasant rather than providing something unpleasant. For example, a benefit or privilege previously enjoyed by an employee may be withdrawn because of undesirable behaviour. This discourages repetition of that behaviour.

Reinforcement Schedule:

Reinforcement schedule refers to the timing of reinforcement. Reinforcement must be scheduled properly because if the gap between reinforcements becomes too large, the learner may forget the learned behaviour. On the other hand, continuous reinforcement may become costly.

The major reinforcement schedules are:

(a) Continuous Reinforcement:

Continuous reinforcement is provided without any break. Reinforcement follows every occurrence of the desired behaviour.

(b) Partial or Intermittent Reinforcement:

Under this schedule, gaps are maintained between two reinforcements. It is more commonly used in organisations.

Partial reinforcement includes:

(i) Fixed Interval Schedule:

The time interval between two reinforcements remains fixed. For example, reinforcement may be provided every six months.

(ii) Variable Interval Schedule:

The interval between reinforcements varies from time to time.

Variable interval reinforcement may further take two forms:

(a) Fixed Ratio Schedule:

Reinforcement is provided after a fixed amount of performance. The unit gives the example of reinforcement being given whenever sales fall by 10%.

(b) Variable Ratio Schedule:

No fixed ratio is maintained. Employees do not know exactly when reinforcement will occur. Because of this uncertainty, the variable ratio schedule is considered the most effective and most powerful method of reinforcement scheduling.

Thus, learning is reinforced through positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment and extinction, while reinforcement schedules determine the timing and frequency with which reinforcement is provided.

Q. 16. Explain the impact of Big Five Personality traits on work-related behaviour.

Answer: The Big Five Personality Model identifies five major personality traits which encompass most of the significant variation in human personality. These traits are Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Emotional Stability and Openness to Experience. These dimensions are closely related to the work-related behaviour of employees. 

Extraversion refers to the extent of assertiveness and sociability among human beings. Extraverted people generally become effective leaders because they possess both sociability and assertiveness. These qualities help them influence others and perform leadership functions effectively. 

Agreeableness means the propensity to agree with others. Agreeable people are liked by everyone. As a result, interpersonal relationships become stronger and healthier when such people are present in greater numbers within an organisation. 

Conscientiousness is a measure of reliability and dependability. Conscientious employees are highly productive. Their absenteeism and turnover rates are generally low because they perform their duties rationally and responsibly. 

Emotional Stability denotes the ability to avoid and withstand stress. Emotionally stable people remain calm and secure. They are generally highly satisfied employees and are able to control their emotions, making their actions more rational and balanced. 

Openness to Experience helps people listen to the opinions of others and makes them curious, creative and flexible. Such individuals cope better with change and often act as change agents within organisations. Since change is a regular feature of modern organisations, open individuals contribute significantly to organisational adaptation and development. 

Thus, the Big Five Personality traits have a direct influence on leadership, interpersonal relations, productivity, job satisfaction, adaptability and overall workplace behaviour. 

Q. 17. What do you mean by personality job match? How did John Holland explain it?

Answer: Personality Job Match refers to the matching of an individual's personality characteristics with the requirements of a particular job. The purpose of studying personality is to understand its impact on work-related behaviour and productivity. Productivity is expected to be high when the personality of an employee fits the requirements of the job. Since all personality traits are not suitable for every type of work, an appropriate match between personality and job becomes essential. 

John Holland explained personality job match by identifying six personality traits and the jobs suitable for each of them. These are:

(i) Realistic Personality:

Characteristics:

Simple, aggressive and manually skilled.

Suitable Jobs:

Farming, garage mechanic and welding. 

(ii) Conventional Personality:

Characteristics:

Routine worker, conforming and traditional.

Suitable Jobs:

Accounting, finance and corporate management. 

(iii) Investigative Personality:

Characteristics:

Thinker, organiser, curious and analytical.

Suitable Jobs:

Biology, mathematics and market research. 

(iv) Enterprising Personality:

Characteristics:

Dominating, assertive and politicking.

Suitable Jobs:

Law, public relations and entrepreneurship. 

(v) Social Personality:

Characteristics:

Polite, cordial, helping and dependable.

Suitable Jobs:

Social work, teaching and counseling. 

(vi) Artistic Personality:

Characteristics:

Emotional, creative and imaginative.

Suitable Jobs:

Art, music, painting and interior decoration. 

Holland further explained the relationship among these personality types through a hexagonal model. According to him, personality traits that are adjacent to one another in the hexagon are closely related. Therefore, a job suitable for one personality type may also suit an adjacent personality type. However, diagonally opposite personality traits are fundamentally different and are generally unsuitable for the same kinds of jobs. For example, realistic people may perform jobs suited to conventional or investigative persons, but realistic people cannot be social persons, and conventional people cannot be artistic persons because these traits are diagonally positioned in the hexagon. 

Therefore, Holland concluded that productivity, job satisfaction and organisational effectiveness increase when jobs are matched with the appropriate personality traits. 

Q. 18. State the usual techniques of speed-reading the other persons.

Answer: The usual techniques of speed-reading or making quick judgments about other persons are discussed under the concept of short-cut judgments about others. These techniques help individuals form rapid impressions about people, although such judgments may not always be accurate. The common techniques are:

(i) Selective Perception:

People selectively interpret what they see on the basis of their interests, background, experience and attitudes. They focus only on certain aspects of a person and ignore other characteristics. 

(ii) Halo Effect:

Halo Effect occurs when a perceiver judges a person on the basis of only one favourable quality and ignores all other characteristics. A single positive trait influences the overall evaluation of that person. 

(iii) Projection:

Projection occurs when individuals attribute their own characteristics, motives or feelings to other people. They assume that others possess qualities similar to their own. 

(iv) Stereotyping:

Stereotyping means judging a person on the basis of the group to which he or she belongs. Instead of evaluating the individual separately, people form opinions based on commonly held beliefs about that group. 

These techniques are widely used in day-to-day life because they save time and simplify perception, but they may also result in inaccurate judgments about others. 

Q. 19. Discuss the theory in relation to attributing causes to one's behaviour.

Answer: The theory related to attributing causes to behaviour is Attribution Theory. Heider and Kelly are the principal contributors to this theory. The theory explains the complexity involved in person perception and the process by which people assign causes to behaviour. Whenever a person observes the behaviour of another individual, the first question that arises is why that person behaves in a particular manner. The perceiver attempts to determine whether the behaviour is caused by internal factors or external factors. 

If the behaviour is internally caused, the target person is considered personally responsible for that behaviour. Internal causes are related to personal characteristics, motives, abilities or intentions. 

If the behaviour is externally caused, responsibility is attributed to situational forces rather than to the individual. In such cases, circumstances are considered to have compelled the person to behave in that particular way. 

According to Attribution Theory, while determining whether behaviour is internally or externally caused, the perceiver depends on three factors:

(i) Consistency:

Consistency refers to whether the person behaves in the same manner repeatedly over time. High consistency suggests that the behaviour is a stable characteristic. 

(ii) Distinctiveness:

Distinctiveness refers to whether the behaviour is unusual in a particular situation. If the behaviour occurs only in specific circumstances, it has high distinctiveness. 

(iii) Consensus:

Consensus refers to whether other people behave similarly in the same situation. High consensus exists when many individuals react in the same manner under identical circumstances. 

By analysing consistency, distinctiveness and consensus, the perceiver decides whether behaviour is due to internal personal factors or external situational factors. Thus, Attribution Theory provides a systematic explanation of how people attribute causes to behaviour. 

Q. 20. Distinguish between A and B type persons.

Answer: A Type and B Type personalities represent two contrasting patterns of behaviour.

A Type Persons:

A type people are always in a hurry and continuously run after time. They eat quickly, walk quickly and work very fast. They frequently start several jobs at the same time and often fail to complete them satisfactorily. Although they may achieve quantity of work, quality is often sacrificed. They are generally under pressure and suffer from a high level of stress. 

B Type Persons:

B type people are generally happy-go-lucky in nature. They participate in activities not merely to win but also to enjoy them. They enjoy their leisure time and do not suffer from a constant sense of urgency. Their stress level is comparatively very low. 

Difference between A and B Type Persons

A Type Persons:

Always run after time.

Eat, walk and work quickly.

Handle many jobs simultaneously.

Emphasise quantity more than quality.

Experience high stress.

B Type Persons:

Happy-go-lucky in nature.

Work at a relaxed pace.

Prefer enjoyment and leisure.

Do not suffer from urgency of time.

Experience very low stress. 

Thus, A type personalities are characterised by speed, urgency and stress, whereas B type personalities are characterised by relaxation, enjoyment and low stress.

Subject: Organizational Behaviour (PGCO – I)

Course: PGDP – NSOU M.Com.

Unit III: Group Behaviour in Organization

Q. 1. Is command group a formal group?

Answer: Yes, command group is a formal group. A command group is a formal group where some members give commands and others obey those commands. The working relationship between a boss and subordinates is an example of a command group. Its structure is generally vertical and follows a chain of command. The group is organisationally structured and created for carrying out specific responsibilities and duties. 

Q. 2. Who conducted the experiment on social loafing?

Answer: The experiment on social loafing was conducted by Ringelman, a psychologist. He identified that when the size of a group becomes larger, the contribution of individual members tends to decrease. This phenomenon is known as social loafing and is also referred to as the Ringelman Effect.

In his experiment, Ringelman first asked one person to pull a rope and found that the force exerted was 63 kilograms. When three persons pulled together, the average force per person declined to 53 kilograms. When eight persons jointly pulled the rope, the average force came down further to 31 kilograms. The experiment showed that as the size of the group increases, individual performance decreases due to social loafing. 

Q. 3. Who was the head of the Hawthorne Study?

Answer: Elton Mayo was the head of the Hawthorne Study. The Hawthorne Study was an eight-year-long study conducted from 1924 to 1932 at the Hawthorne Electrical Plant. Elton Mayo and his team carried out a series of experiments to discover the reasons behind the continuous reduction in production. The study concluded that the performance norms of workers had a significant influence on productivity. It revealed that workers often followed group-established production norms rather than producing according to their full capacity. Elton Mayo suggested that the Human Relations Approach to management could help solve such problems. 

Q. 4. State two characteristics of a creative man.

Answer: According to the discussion on creativity, creative people possess several important characteristics. Any two characteristics are:

i. A great amount of energy:

Creative individuals generally possess a high level of energy that enables them to work enthusiastically and pursue new ideas with dedication.

ii. Perseverance:

Creative people show persistence in their efforts. They continue working on problems despite failures and difficulties until they discover innovative solutions.

Other characteristics mentioned include apathy to immediate gain, irritation to status quo, liking daydreaming, high intelligence, and a creative mind. 

Q. 5. Which source of power is considered as the best?

Answer: Expert power is considered the best source of power. Expert power is a personal power that arises from a person's expertise and specialised knowledge in a particular field. People tend to follow the advice and opinions of experts because of their competence and knowledge. The text states that expert power is the most effective among all forms of power because:

i. It remains with a person for a long time.

ii. Its influence on others is long-lasting.

iii. Unlike coercive power, it does not create resistance or revolt.

iv. Unlike reward power, its effectiveness does not diminish over time.

v. Expertise is valued by everyone in all periods.

Therefore, expert power is regarded as the best power. 

Q. 6. What is role ambiguity?

Answer: Role ambiguity arises when there is a gap between role expectation and role perception. Role expectation refers to what other people expect from an individual regarding his or her role. Role perception refers to how the individual himself or herself understands that role.

If the role is clearly understood by everyone concerned, role expectation and role perception become the same. However, when they differ, uncertainty develops regarding the duties, responsibilities, and expected behaviour of the individual. This situation is known as role ambiguity. Thus, role ambiguity is the condition created by the difference between role expectation and role perception. 

Q. 7. What do you mean by Perceived conflict?

Answer: Perceived conflict refers to the stage in which the parties involved become aware that conflict exists or may arise because of differences in interests, goals, opinions, or perceptions. At this stage, the conflict is recognised mentally by the concerned parties, although it may not yet have resulted in emotional reactions or open confrontation. The existence of conflict is perceived and understood by the individuals involved. 

Q. 8. Define coercive power.

Answer: Coercive power is an official or formal power based on the ability to punish others or create fear of punishment. A person possesses coercive power when he or she can dismiss, suspend, demote, or otherwise penalise others. Managers and supervisors often use this power to prevent undesirable behaviour among subordinates. The use of coercive power is commonly known as the “stick” policy of management because compliance is achieved through the fear of punishment. 

Q. 9. State the factors on which dependency depends.

Answer: According to the Dependency Postulate of Power, dependency depends on the following factors:

i. Importance:

Dependency increases when a person controls something that is important to another person. If the controlled resource is important, the dependent person becomes more vulnerable and the controller gains power.

ii. Scarcity:

Dependency becomes greater when the desired resource is scarce. If alternative sources are readily available, dependency decreases and power weakens.

iii. Non-substitutability:

Dependency is high when the resource has no close substitute. If substitute goods or alternatives are available, dependency decreases because the individual can satisfy the need through other means.

These three factors determine the extent of dependency and consequently the degree of power one person can exercise over another. 

Q. 10. What do you mean by groupthink?

Answer: Groupthink is a situation in which an individual member of a group suppresses his or her own opinion and accepts the opinion of the majority of the group. In groupthink, members refrain from expressing independent views because of close attachment to the group or fear of criticism, harassment, or punishment for not conforming to group norms. As a result, the diversity of opinions that is essential for sound decision-making gets reduced.

The concept was illustrated through Solomon Asch’s experiment. In the experiment, one participant knowingly abandoned his correct judgment and accepted the incorrect opinion of the majority. This demonstrated how individuals often suppress their own views in favour of group decisions.

Therefore, groupthink refers to the tendency of group members to conform to the majority opinion even when they personally believe it to be incorrect.

Q. 11. How does accommodating differ from competing?

Answer: Accommodating and competing are two different styles of conflict handling. 

Competing is a conflict-handling style in which a person tries to satisfy his or her own interests at the cost of others. In this style, the individual seeks to win the conflict by using power, authority, pressure, or influence. The emphasis is on achieving one's own objectives rather than maintaining relationships.

Accommodating, on the other hand, is a style in which a person gives more importance to the interests of the other party than to his or her own interests. In this approach, an individual sacrifices personal goals in order to preserve harmony, maintain relationships, and satisfy the concerns of others.

Thus, the basic difference between the two approaches is that competing emphasizes self-interest and winning, whereas accommodating emphasizes the interests of others and maintaining relationships. One attempts to maximize personal gain, while the other willingly gives up personal interests for the benefit of the opposite party. 

Q. 12. What is zero-sum agreement?

Answer: A zero-sum agreement is based on the idea that the gain of one party occurs at the expense of another party. In such a situation, benefits provided to one individual or group reduce the benefits available to others.

The concept is explained in relation to the zero-sum reward system. When a reward is given to one person by depriving others of similar benefits, politics is likely to arise within the organisation. Under this system, one person's gain becomes another person's loss.

Therefore, a zero-sum agreement refers to an arrangement in which the total available benefit remains fixed and any advantage obtained by one party results in a corresponding disadvantage to another party. Such situations often encourage competition and organisational politics. 

Q. 13. Why do people join group?

Answer: People join groups because groups satisfy various personal, social, and psychological needs. In the case of formal groups, membership is generally compulsory. However, in the case of informal groups, joining is voluntary. Even then, people join groups for several important reasons.

(i) Security:

When a person remains alone, he or she often feels insecure. Membership in a group provides protection and support. By joining a group, individuals need not stand alone in difficult situations. Thus, security is an important reason for group membership.

(ii) Status:

People often join groups in order to enhance their social status and prestige. Membership in recognised groups helps individuals appear important in the eyes of others. For example, people may join organisations such as the Lions Club to gain social recognition.

(iii) Self-esteem:

Individuals seek a sense of worth and importance in life. Joining groups such as social, cultural, or service organisations can enhance self-worth and provide meaning and purpose. Through group membership, people feel valued and respected.

(iv) Affiliation:

Human beings have a natural need for friendship and social interaction. Everyone desires a circle of friends and companionship. Interaction with group members satisfies emotional and psychological needs. People need support, sympathy, and understanding from others, and groups provide these opportunities.

(v) Power:

The principle of “United we stand, divided we fall” explains another important reason for joining groups. Individuals can achieve many objectives more easily through collective effort than through individual effort. Unity creates strength, and group membership increases the ability to achieve goals and exercise influence.

Therefore, people join groups to obtain security, status, self-esteem, affiliation, and power. These needs encourage individuals to become members of various formal and informal groups. 

Q. 14. How is group developed?

Answer: Group development refers to the process through which a group is formed, organised, functions effectively, and eventually completes its purpose. Since groups are formed in different situations and consist of people belonging to different cultures, beliefs, and backgrounds, there is no universal pattern of group development. However, most groups generally pass through five stages.

(i) Forming:

This is the initial stage of group development. At this stage, members are not fully ready to join the group. They try to understand one another and assess whether joining the group would be beneficial. Members observe the situation carefully and attempt to know each other. Once they decide to come together and work collectively, the forming stage comes to an end.

(ii) Storming:

After the decision to form the group is taken, several questions and doubts begin to arise. Members may wonder who will become the leader, what norms will govern the group, and how much personal interest must be sacrificed for the group's objectives. These uncertainties create tension and disagreement. The stage continues until answers to these questions are found and the confusion is resolved.

(iii) Norming:

In this stage, group norms and rules are established. The leader is selected, and members become ready to follow the accepted norms. Relationships among members become more stable and cooperative. Members understand their roles and prepare themselves to participate actively in group activities.

(iv) Performing:

At this stage, the group starts functioning for the purpose for which it was created. A harmonious relationship and a proper chain of command prevail within the group. Members work together efficiently to achieve the group's objectives. Synergy is achieved because the performance of the group becomes greater than the sum of individual performances.

(v) Adjourning:

This stage is mainly relevant for temporary groups. When the objective of the group is achieved, the group is dissolved. Activities are wrapped up and the group ceases to exist. In permanent groups, restructuring may take place instead of dissolution. Old relationships may be broken and new relationships may be formed, leading again to a new cycle beginning with the forming stage.

The stages of group development may be presented as follows:

Group Development Process

1. Forming

   ↓

2. Storming

   ↓

3. Norming

   ↓

4. Performing

   ↓

5. Adjourning

Thus, group development is a systematic process through which members gradually come together, resolve differences, establish norms, perform their assigned tasks, and finally complete or reorganise the group according to its objectives.

Q. 15. State the relationship between cohesiveness of group and organisational productivity?

Answer: Cohesiveness means the degree of attachment among group members. It refers to the extent to which members of a group are attracted to one another. Cohesiveness is essential because without it group performance cannot reach the desired level. There is generally a close relationship between cohesiveness and organisational productivity. 

A cohesive group usually exhibits better cooperation, stronger interpersonal relationships, and greater commitment to group goals. As a result, group performance benefits from a synergic effect. Under such circumstances, the productivity of the group becomes greater than the sum total of individual productivity. 

However, cohesiveness alone does not guarantee high productivity. Another important variable that must be considered is performance norms. The Hawthorne Study showed that highly cohesive groups may still produce low output if their performance norms discourage higher production. In the Hawthorne Plant, workers strongly adhered to group norms such as “Don't produce too much.” Consequently, despite incentives, workers followed the group's production standards and productivity remained low. 

The relationship between cohesiveness and productivity can be explained through the interaction of cohesiveness and performance norms:

Performance Norms High + Cohesiveness Low = Moderate Productivity

Performance Norms High + Cohesiveness High = High Productivity

Performance Norms Low + Cohesiveness Low = Moderate Productivity

Performance Norms Low + Cohesiveness High = Low Productivity

Thus, the highest productivity is achieved only when both cohesiveness and performance norms are high. High cohesiveness combined with low performance norms may actually reduce productivity because members strongly conform to low-output standards. Where cohesiveness is low, only some members follow group norms and therefore productivity generally remains moderate irrespective of whether performance norms are high or low. 

Therefore, cohesiveness positively influences organisational productivity only when it is accompanied by favourable and high performance norms.

Q. 16. Give a brief note on the process of creativity.

Answer: Creativity refers to the process that gives rise to something novel and original. It is difficult to specify exactly how and when creative ideas emerge. Creative people themselves often do not know the precise process through which new ideas develop. Nevertheless, researchers have identified a general model of the creativity process. Although all stages may not occur in every case, the following steps are commonly observed. 

(i) Preparation:

Preparation involves hard work and concentrated attention to a problem. Scientists and researchers often work for years before arriving at a creative idea. During this stage, tentative solutions are developed and experiments are conducted. Some ideas are accepted while others are rejected. This stage lays the foundation for creativity through systematic effort and careful analysis. 

(ii) Incubation:

In the incubation stage, conscious attention is diverted away from the problem. It is similar to “sleeping over” a problem rather than thinking about it directly. The unconscious mind continues to work and genuinely novel ideas may emerge. Transformational innovations often arise during this period. To facilitate incubation, individuals may engage in activities such as reading, gardening, travelling, or taking rest. 

(iii) Persistence:

Persistence involves continuous effort and repeated attempts to solve a problem. The process often follows the method of trial and error. Individuals gather additional information, examine the problem from different perspectives, and continue despite failures. Persistence requires courage, determination, and total involvement. Many creative ideas are the outcome of such sustained effort. 

(iv) Insight:

Insight is the “eureka” stage of creativity. It is the sudden realization or awareness of a unique idea. This flash of understanding may occur at any time and does not follow a fixed schedule. Since such ideas can be forgotten quickly, many researchers keep diaries, sketch pads, or voice recorders to preserve them immediately. 

(v) Verification:

Verification is the final stage in which the usefulness and practicality of the idea are tested. An idea remains only an abstract concept until its practical value is established. Verification determines whether the idea is viable and feasible. If the idea cannot be proved useful, it is not converted into a product or implemented in practice. 

The creativity process may therefore be represented as:

Preparation

↓

Incubation

↓

Persistence

↓

Insight

↓

Verification

This sequence explains how creative ideas generally originate, develop, and finally become useful innovations. 

Q. 17. Narrate the factors that induce politics in organisations.

Answer: Organisational politics refers to activities that are not formally required by the organisation but still influence the distribution of advantages and disadvantages within it. Politics determines who receives promotion, rewards, transfers, demotions, or punishment. Both personal and organisational factors are responsible for the emergence of politics. 

(i) Personal Factors:

Personal factors arise from the personality, value system, and attitudes of employees.

Self-monitoring individuals are generally more political in nature. People who attempt manipulation or seek gains at the cost of others contribute to organisational politics. Persons who lack values or morality often try to acquire power by any means. Employees who primarily care for their own interests encourage political behaviour. High expectations regarding personal advancement and rewards also create conditions favourable to politics. 

(ii) Organisational Factors:

(a) Low Trust:

When employees do not trust one another, political behaviour develops. Suspicion and lack of confidence create opportunities for manipulation and lobbying. 

(b) Role Ambiguity:

When roles are not clearly defined, employees can interpret responsibilities according to their own interests. Such uncertainty creates scope for politics. 

(c) Subjective Evaluation:

If the performance evaluation system is not objective and performance cannot be measured clearly, managers may exercise personal discretion. This often leads to political behaviour. 

(d) Promotion Opportunities:

Since everyone cannot be promoted, employees often engage in politics to improve their chances of promotion. 

(e) Zero-sum Reward System:

When rewards given to one employee reduce the benefits available to others, political activities become more intense. Such systems naturally encourage competition and lobbying. 

(f) Democracy:

Modern organisations are generally managed democratically. Democratic systems encourage lobbying and coalition formation, which often give rise to political activities. 

Therefore, organisational politics is induced by both personal characteristics of employees and organisational conditions such as low trust, role ambiguity, subjective evaluation, promotion opportunities, zero-sum reward systems, and democratic management structures. 

Q. 18. What are the outcomes of conflict?

Answer: Conflict is an important aspect of organisational life. Its outcomes may be either beneficial or harmful depending upon the nature, intensity, and management of the conflict. Conflict does not always produce negative consequences. It can generate both positive and negative outcomes. 

(i) Positive Outcomes of Conflict:

Conflict can stimulate new thinking and encourage the search for better solutions to organisational problems. It prevents stagnation and challenges existing assumptions. Through conflict, hidden problems become visible and receive attention. It encourages discussion, creativity, innovation, and constructive change. Conflict may also improve decision-making because different viewpoints are expressed and evaluated. It can strengthen group performance when disagreements are resolved constructively. 

(ii) Negative Outcomes of Conflict:

When conflict becomes excessive, it may damage interpersonal relationships and reduce cooperation among employees. It can create hostility, distrust, tension, and stress within the organisation. Excessive conflict diverts attention from organisational goals and lowers productivity. It may weaken group cohesiveness, disrupt communication, and result in dissatisfaction among employees. In extreme situations, conflict can lead to organisational inefficiency and poor performance. 

Therefore, conflict has dual outcomes. Moderate and properly managed conflict may contribute to creativity, innovation, and organisational effectiveness, whereas excessive and poorly managed conflict may harm relationships, reduce productivity, and adversely affect organisational performance.

Subject: Organizational Behaviour (PGCO – I)

Course: PGDP – NSOU M.Com.

Unit IV: Group Decision Making and Communication

Q. 1. State any two advantages of group decision making.

Answer: Group decision making offers several advantages over individual decision making. Any two important advantages are:

i. More Information:

A single individual has limitations in collecting and processing information. In group decision making, several people contribute their knowledge, experience and information. As a result, a larger amount of information becomes available and better decisions can be taken. The limitations of one brain can be overcome by combining the ideas and knowledge of many people. 

ii. More Diverse Inputs:

Different members view a problem from different angles and perspectives. Consequently, a variety of suggestions, alternatives and viewpoints become available. The availability of more alternatives increases the possibility of selecting the best solution among them. Other advantages mentioned in the unit include larger acceptance of decisions and greater legitimacy because decisions are taken collectively. 

Q. 2. Is group decision efficient?

Answer: No, group decision making is generally not considered efficient, although it is often effective. According to the unit, group decisions are effective in terms of accuracy, creativity and acceptability because they involve more information, diverse viewpoints and wider acceptance. However, they are not efficient because of certain disadvantages. The reasons for lack of efficiency are:

i. Time Consuming:

Group decisions require assembling members, discussing issues, resolving disagreements and conducting meetings. These activities consume considerable time and increase the cost of decision making. 

ii. Pressure to Conform or Groupthink:

Members may feel pressure to agree with the majority or powerful members even when they have different opinions. This reduces independent thinking and affects decision quality. 

iii. Splintered Responsibility or Group Shift:

Responsibility is shared among all members. As a result, individuals may not feel fully accountable for the outcome. Members may also support extreme decisions because responsibility is distributed among the group. 

Therefore, group decisions are effective but not efficient due to the disadvantages associated with the group process. 

Q. 3. Name two techniques of group decision making.

Answer: Two techniques of group decision making are:

i. Brainstorming

ii. Delphi Technique

The unit also mentions Nominal Group Technique and Electronic Meeting/Video Conferencing as important techniques of group decision making. 

Q. 4. Name two types of communication networks.

Answer: Two important types of communication networks are:

i. Formal Communication Network

ii. Informal Communication Network

Formal communication follows the organisational structure and chain of command, whereas informal communication develops through social relationships and is commonly known as grapevine communication. 

Q. 5. Who developed the Johari Window Model?

Answer: The Johari Window Model was developed by Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham. The name “Johari” is derived from the combination of the first names of its developers, Joseph and Harry. 

Q. 6. In which year Johari Window Model was developed?

Answer: The Johari Window Model was developed in 1955 by Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham. It is a model used for understanding interpersonal communication, self-awareness and relationships among individuals. 

Q. 7. Write a note on Johari Window.

Answer: Johari Window is a model used to understand communication, interpersonal relationships and self-awareness. It was developed by Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham in 1955. The model explains how information about an individual is known or unknown to self and to others. The Johari Window consists of four areas:

i. Open Area:

This area contains information that is known both to the individual and to others. It includes behaviours, feelings, attitudes and information openly shared by a person. Effective communication is enhanced when this area is large. 

ii. Blind Area:

This area includes information that others know about the individual but the individual himself or herself does not know. Feedback from others helps reduce this area. 

iii. Hidden Area:

This area contains information known to the individual but not revealed to others. Self-disclosure helps reduce this area and improves communication. 

iv. Unknown Area:

   This area consists of information that is unknown both to the individual and to others. Such information may emerge through experience, interaction and self-discovery. 

The Johari Window is useful in improving communication effectiveness, interpersonal understanding, feedback and personal development. 

Q. 8. What do you mean by 'filtering' in the context of communication?

Answer: Filtering refers to purposefully withholding or manipulating information with the belief that the receiver need not know the complete context or the actual information. It is one of the important interpersonal barriers to effective communication. 

When communication passes through several organisational levels, the possibility of filtering increases. Sometimes fear of conveying bad news or the desire to please the receiver leads to filtering. As a result, the receiver gets incomplete or distorted information. Fabrication of reports to superiors is cited as an example of filtering. 

Therefore, filtering prevents accurate transmission of information and reduces communication effectiveness. 

Q. 9. Define 'grapevine'.

Answer: Grapevine is the informal communication system existing within an organisation. It is built around social relationships and does not follow the formal chain of command or organisational communication network. 

Grapevine communication can transmit information very quickly because it is free from formal procedures. However, it may sometimes spread rumours or incorrect information. Despite this limitation, studies mentioned in the unit indicate that in about 75 percent of cases grapevine communication transmits correct and useful information. 

Thus, grapevine refers to the informal communication network operating alongside the formal communication system. 

Q. 10. Write a short note on "non-verbal communication".

Answer: Non-verbal communication is communication in which no written or spoken words are used. Communication takes place through physical movements, facial expressions and body language. Examples of non-verbal communication include:

(i) A glance

(ii) A stare

(iii) A smile

(iv) A frown

(vi) Showing one or two fingers

(vii) Winking of eyes

All these actions convey meaning without the use of words. The academic study of body movements used in communication is known as Kinesics. 

Non-verbal communication is often linked with oral communication and provides fuller meaning. Sometimes it is even more powerful than verbal communication because actions may communicate messages more effectively than words. If spoken words and body language convey different meanings, people often believe the body language. This is reflected in the saying, “Actions speak louder than words.” 

However, non-verbal cues are not universal. The same gesture may have different meanings in different cultures and countries. Therefore, care must be taken while interpreting non-verbal communication. 

Q. 11. Define "Nominal Group Technique" of group decision.

Answer: Nominal Group Technique is a structured method of group decision making in which members assemble together but work independently in generating and evaluating ideas. It combines the advantages of group participation with independent thinking. The process of Nominal Group Technique is as follows:

i. A small group sits around a table.

ii. The leader explains the problem.

iii. Members independently write down their solutions on sheets of paper.

iv. The proposed solutions are explained.

v. Members secretly rank the alternatives.

vi. The leader collects and records the rankings.

vii. The solution receiving the highest number of Rank I votes is accepted as the final decision. 

Since opinions are expressed in writing and rankings are given secretly, members are not influenced by others. As a result, groupthink is avoided and the method becomes highly effective. 

Q. 12. Why is "Nominal Group" called as nominal?

Answer: The technique is called a “Nominal Group” because the normal features of a group are largely absent. Although members gather together physically, they do not engage in the usual group discussion and interaction. 

In this technique:

(i) Members write their opinions independently.

(ii) Ideas are presented in writing.

(iii) Ranking is done secretly.

(iv) Direct discussion and interaction among members are not encouraged. 

Therefore, it is a group only in name and not in the true interactive sense. Since the normal group processes of discussion and interaction are absent, it is called a Nominal Group. 

Q. 13. What do you mean by AII style of decision making?

Answer: AII is one of the decision-making styles suggested by Vroom and Yetton. They proposed different decision-making styles ranging from purely individual decisions to completely group decisions. The AII style occupies a position where the decision maker takes the decision alone but gathers information from others before making the final decision. 

In the AII style, the manager or decision maker does not involve others in the actual decision-making process. However, before arriving at a decision, he or she collects relevant information, facts and opinions from other persons. The purpose of collecting such information is to obtain a better understanding of the problem and the available alternatives. After gathering the necessary information, the individual independently evaluates the information and makes the final decision. 

Thus, in the AII style, consultation is limited to information gathering only. The authority and responsibility for making the final decision remain entirely with the individual decision maker. It therefore represents a decision-making style that combines individual authority with information support from others. 

Q. 14. Define "groupthink".

Answer: Groupthink is a condition that arises in group decision making when members are pressured to conform to the opinion of the majority or of a powerful group within the decision-making body. Although theoretically every member of the group is free to express his or her opinion, in practice the views of influential members often prevail and minority opinions are suppressed. 

Under such circumstances, members who disagree with the dominant opinion may remain silent or accept the majority view even though they personally hold different views. This forced conformity reduces independent thinking and prevents the free expression of alternative ideas. 

The unit describes groupthink as a barrier to effective group decision making. Since members fail to express their genuine opinions and instead conform to prevailing views, the quality of group decisions may suffer. The pressure to conform therefore weakens the effectiveness of the decision-making process and may prevent the group from considering better alternatives. 

Thus, groupthink refers to the tendency of group members to suppress their individual opinions and conform to the majority or dominant viewpoint, resulting in ineffective group decision making. 

Q. 15. What are the advantages and disadvantages of group decisions?

Answer: Group decisions possess both strengths and weaknesses. Neither individual decision making nor group decision making is ideal for all situations. Group decisions offer several advantages over individual decisions, but they also suffer from certain limitations. 

Advantages of Group Decisions

i. More Information:

One of the major advantages of group decision making is the availability of more information. Human beings have limitations in collecting and assimilating complete information. The limitation of one brain can be overcome by combining the knowledge and experience of several individuals. Group decisions therefore make better decisions possible because more information becomes available for consideration. 

ii. More Diverse Inputs:

Different individuals view a problem from different perspectives. Each member contributes information and ideas of a different nature. As a result, a larger number of alternatives and options become available. Since the possibility of selecting the best solution increases with the number of alternatives, group decisions benefit from diverse inputs and viewpoints. 

iii. Larger Acceptance:

When a decision is taken by a single individual, other people may or may not accept it. However, when a group collectively participates in decision making, the members involved are more likely to accept the decision because it becomes their own decision. This increases the acceptability of the decision. Moreover, motivation and commitment toward implementation of the decision also increase. 

iv. Legitimacy:

Modern society values democratic processes and generally prefers consultation rather than autocratic decision making. Even a good decision may be criticised if it appears arbitrary. Group decisions gain legitimacy because they are based on consultation and participation. Consequently, society often considers such decisions more ideal and acceptable. 

Disadvantages of Group Decisions

i. Time Consuming:

Group decision making requires assembling members, conducting discussions, resolving differences and reaching agreement. The process takes time because:

(a) It takes time to assemble members.

(b) Opinions are often opposed by others.

(c) The decision process involves give and take.

(d) Interaction among members consumes time.

(e) Meetings may fail to reach a solution.

As a result, decision making becomes slower and more costly. 

ii. Pressure to Conform or Groupthink:

Although all members are theoretically free to express their opinions, practically the opinion of a powerful lobby often dominates. Minority members may be pressured to agree with the majority view even when they disagree. Many members therefore remain silent or conform to prevailing opinions. Such forced conformity is known as groupthink and acts as a barrier to effective group decision making. 

iii. Splintered Responsibility or Group Shift:

In group decision making, responsibility is shared among all members. Consequently, no individual member feels fully responsible when a decision fails. Since responsibility is divided, members may attempt to shift responsibility to others. This tendency often encourages aggressive or extreme decisions because individuals do not bear personal accountability. The movement of group decisions toward extreme positions is known as group shift. 

Evaluation of Group Decisions:

Because of the above advantages, group decisions are considered effective in terms of accuracy, creativity and acceptability. However, because of the disadvantages, they are not considered efficient. Therefore, before adopting group decision making, it is necessary to determine whether the gains in effectiveness are sufficient to compensate for the losses in efficiency. 

Q. 16. Discuss the techniques of group decision making.

Answer: Group decision making is often affected by conformity pressures and interpersonal influences. Members may censor themselves and pressure others toward agreement, thereby affecting both effectiveness and efficiency. To overcome such problems and improve the quality of group decisions, several techniques of group decision making have been developed. The major techniques are Brainstorming, Delphi Technique, Nominal Group Technique and Electronic Meeting/Video Conferencing. 

i. Brainstorming:

Brainstorming generally involves a group consisting of about six to twelve people who sit around a table in a classroom-like setting. The primary objective of this technique is to generate a large number of ideas so that a unique and effective solution can be found. 

The important features of brainstorming are:

(a) Members are encouraged to generate as many ideas as possible.

(b) Participants are allowed to “free wheel” and think freely.

(c) Even unusual or unconventional ideas are welcomed.

(d) No criticism of ideas is permitted during idea generation.

(e) Quantity of ideas is emphasised before quality.

(f) After ideas are generated, suggestions are modified and improved.

(h) The final quality solution is selected after considering the ideas of all members.

Through this process, opinions become the collective opinion of many individuals and groupthink is reduced to some extent. 

ii. Delphi Technique:

The Delphi Technique is an extension of brainstorming and is particularly useful when the participants are physically separated from one another. The technique involves obtaining opinions from experts through a structured process of questionnaires. 

The process may be represented as follows:

(a) The problem is defined by the leader.

(b) A sample of experts is selected.

(c) A questionnaire is developed.

(d) The questionnaire is sent to the experts.

(e) Responses are compiled.

(f) A modified questionnaire is prepared and sent again.

(h) The cycle continues until consensus is reached.

(i) A solution is then developed.

In this technique, members work independently in their own locations. Therefore, one person's opinion is not influenced by another's opinion. However, because repeated rounds of questionnaires are involved and members may take time to respond, the process is highly time consuming. 

iii. Nominal Group Technique:

In the Nominal Group Technique, members assemble together as in brainstorming, but they continue to work independently as in the Delphi Technique. The objective is to combine group participation with independent judgement. 

The process follows these steps:

(a) A small group sits around a table.

(b) The leader explains the problem.

(c) Members write down their solutions on sheets of paper.

(d) Solutions are explained independently.

(e) Members rank the alternatives.

(f) The leader collects and records the rankings.

The solution receiving the highest number of Rank I votes is accepted as the final decision.

Because opinions are written independently and rankings are given secretly, members are not influenced by others. Groupthink is therefore avoided and the technique becomes highly effective. 

iv. Electronic Meeting or Video Conferencing:

Electronic Meeting is the modern technological version of the Nominal Group Technique. In this technique, computers and electronic systems replace pen and paper. Members do not need to be physically present at a single location. Even when they participate simultaneously, they work independently and secretly. 

When participants conduct meetings while sitting in different locations and communicating through technological means, the process is known as video conferencing. The technique improves efficiency because technology assists the entire process. 

The major limitation of Electronic Meeting and Video Conferencing is the absence of warmth of group interaction and face-to-face discussion. Nevertheless, it provides an effective modern method of group decision making. 

Thus, Brainstorming, Delphi Technique, Nominal Group Technique and Electronic Meeting/Video Conferencing are the principal techniques used to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of group decision making.

Q. 17. Narrate the communication process.

Answer: Communication is the process through which information passes between a sender and a receiver. This passing of information involves a series of logical steps so that the sender can communicate exactly what he or she intends to communicate and the receiver can understand the meaning correctly. The sequence of these steps is known as the communication process. 

The communication process may be represented as follows:

Source → Encoding → Channel → Receiver → Decoding → Action → Feedback → Source

Each element of the communication process performs a specific function.

(i) Source:

The communication process begins with the source. The source initiates the message by encoding a thought. The source may be an individual or an organisation that desires to communicate some information, idea, instruction or opinion to another person. 

(ii) Encoding:

Encoding means expressing a thought in a particular form. The source converts ideas into symbols, words, gestures, written messages or any other form of expression. The effectiveness of encoding depends mainly upon four factors:

(a) Skills

(b) Attitude

(c) Knowledge

(d) Culture

The source requires appropriate speaking, reasoning and persuasion skills for oral communication and writing skills for written communication. The attitude of the sender toward the receiver and the subject matter also influences encoding. Knowledge of the subject determines what information is communicated. Culture influences values, priorities and the emphasis placed on different aspects of the message. 

(iii) Channel:

After encoding, the message is transmitted through a channel selected by the source. The choice of channel depends upon its suitability to the receiver. The channel may be formal or informal. Formal channels are established by the organisation, whereas informal channels are personal in nature. 

(iv) Receiver:

The receiver is the person or target to whom the message is directed. The receiver obtains the message through the selected channel. Merely receiving the message does not guarantee understanding. Therefore, another process becomes necessary. 

(v) Decoding:

Decoding refers to translating and interpreting the symbols, language or signals used by the sender so that they become meaningful to the receiver. Like encoding, decoding depends upon the receiver’s skills, attitude, knowledge and cultural predispositions. Many communication failures occur because of improper decoding. The greater the similarity between encoding and decoding, the more effective the communication becomes. 

(vi) Action:

The understanding or misunderstanding of the message is reflected in the action taken by the receiver. If the receiver correctly understands the message, the action will correspond with the sender’s intention. If the message is misunderstood, the action may differ from what was expected. 

(vii) Feedback:

Feedback informs the source about how the receiver has interpreted the message and what action has been taken. Through feedback, the sender can determine whether communication has been successful. If the sender finds that the receiver has not acted according to the intended meaning, the communication process must be repeated. 

Thus, communication is a continuous process involving source, encoding, channel, receiver, decoding, action and feedback. Effective communication occurs when the receiver understands the message in the same manner as intended by the sender. 

Q. 18. What are the advantages and disadvantages of oral communication?

Answer: Oral communication is the most common and widely used form of communication. Group discussions, one-to-one conversations, rumours and grapevine communications are mainly conducted orally. The development of telephones and intercom systems has greatly extended the scope of oral communication, making it possible for people located in different countries to communicate directly. 

Advantages of Oral Communication

i. Direct Communication:

Oral communication enables direct contact between the sender and the receiver. The message can be transmitted personally and immediately without any intermediary. 

ii. Simplicity:

Oral communication is simple and easy to use. It does not require elaborate procedures or documentation and can therefore be employed conveniently in day-to-day organisational activities. 

iii. Avoids Delay:

Messages can be communicated instantly through oral communication. The receiver obtains the information immediately, reducing delays in communication and decision making. 

iv. Conveys Personal Warmth:

Since oral communication generally involves direct human interaction, it conveys personal warmth and develops better interpersonal relationships among participants. 

v. Allows Instant Feedback:

One of the major advantages of oral communication is immediate feedback. The sender can instantly determine whether the receiver has understood the message and can clarify doubts at once. 

vi. More Convincing:

Oral communication is often more convincing because physical gestures, facial expressions and body language accompany spoken words. These non-verbal cues strengthen the impact of the message. 

Disadvantages of Oral Communication

i. No Formal Record:

Oral communication does not maintain a formal record. Consequently, it becomes difficult to prove, verify or preserve the communication for future use. 

ii. Unsuitable for Lengthy Messages:

Lengthy and highly detailed messages cannot be effectively communicated orally. Such messages may become difficult to remember and accurately reproduce. 

iii. Distortion by Noise:

Noise in the communication channel may distort the message. External disturbances may interfere with the transmission and reception of information. 

iv. Alteration of Meaning Through Different Levels:

When oral communication passes through several organisational levels, the meaning may change. Each person may interpret or communicate the message differently, resulting in distortion. 

v. Influence of Facial Expressions:

Different facial expressions and accompanying gestures may alter the interpretation of oral communication. The same spoken words may convey different meanings depending upon the associated non-verbal cues. 

Therefore, oral communication offers speed, directness and immediate feedback, but it also suffers from limitations relating to record keeping, message distortion and interpretation. 

Q. 19. Critically examine the barriers to effective communication.

Answer: Effective communication requires that the message be understood and interpreted in exactly the same manner as intended by the sender. However, numerous obstacles prevent this objective from being achieved. These obstacles are known as barriers to effective communication. Such barriers may arise from external conditions, organisational factors or personal characteristics of the sender and receiver. 

The barriers to effective communication may broadly be classified into External or Noise or Organisational Barriers and Interpersonal Barriers. 

A. External or Noise or Organisational Barriers

(i) Poor Timing:

The timing of communication is extremely important. If communication takes place long before the required action, the receiver may forget the message. Similarly, last-minute communication may create difficulties in taking appropriate action. Communication should also not occur when the receiver is physically tired, psychologically disturbed or heavily occupied, as misunderstanding may result. 

(ii) Improper Channel:

The communication channel should be appropriate for the receiver and the nature of the message. For example, if the receiver is not familiar with electronic communication, an e-mail may not be suitable. Similarly, lengthy messages may not be appropriate for oral communication. An improper channel reduces communication effectiveness. 

(iii) Physical Distractions:

Physical distractions interfere with communication. Examples include telephone interruptions, walk-in visitors and attending to multiple tasks simultaneously. Such distractions divert attention and obstruct the effective transmission and reception of messages. 

(iv) Information Overload:

The human brain cannot receive, store and analyse unlimited information. When individuals are compelled to process excessive information, they suffer from information overload. Important information may then be forgotten, ignored or inadequately processed. 

(v) Structure of Organisation:

The organisational structure itself may sometimes hinder communication. If the chain of command is not clearly established, communication may become delayed, blocked or distorted while passing through different organisational levels. 

(vi) Network Breakdown:

Communication networks may fail because of technical problems, information overload or intentional interference. Four forms of network disturbance are identified:

(a) Interception – Picking up information intended for the destination.

(b) Interruption – Preventing information from reaching the destination.

(c) Fabrication – Adding false information or deleting part of the original information, thereby creating misinformation.

(d) Modification – Using any one or a combination of the above disturbances to alter communication. 

B. Interpersonal Barriers

(i) Filtering:

Filtering refers to deliberately withholding or manipulating information because the sender believes that the receiver need not know the complete facts. The possibility of filtering increases when communication passes through multiple organisational levels. Fear of conveying bad news or the desire to please others often leads to filtering. Fabrication of reports to superiors is cited as an example. 

(ii) Perception Problems:

Differences in interpretation create perceptual barriers. These barriers arise because people perceive and evaluate situations differently.

(iii) Halo Effect:

Halo effect occurs when a person is judged solely on the basis of one trait rather than on overall characteristics. 

(iv) Stereotyping:

Stereotyping occurs when group characteristics are imposed upon an individual, resulting in biased interpretation. 

(v) Projection:

Projection occurs when the sender assumes that the receiver is exactly like himself or herself and therefore interprets messages in the same manner. 

(vi) Semantic Barriers:

Semantic barriers arise because individuals interpret words, symbols and language differently. For example, the abbreviation “Dr” may be interpreted by a physician as “doctor”, by an academic as “doctorate” and by an accountant as “debit or debtor”. Similarly, the symbol “8” may be interpreted differently by persons familiar with different numerical systems. Such differences create misunderstanding. 

(vii) Intonation Problems:

The meaning of a sentence may change depending on the emphasis or tone used by the speaker. The sentence “I do not take you to dinner tonight” may convey different meanings depending upon whether emphasis is placed on “you”, “dinner” or “tonight”. Therefore, variations in intonation may create communication problems. 

(ix) Sender Credibility:

When the sender possesses high credibility in the eyes of the receiver, the message is readily accepted. Conversely, if credibility is low, the receiver may interpret or filter the message according to personal beliefs rather than accept it objectively. 

(x) Cultural Differences:

Cultural differences significantly affect communication effectiveness. Gestures, behaviour and expressions may have different meanings in different cultures. Examples include attitudes toward punctuality, physical distance during communication, repeated checking of wristwatches during conversations and the meaning attached to hand gestures such as showing two fingers. These cultural variations often create misunderstanding. 

Critical Evaluation

Barriers to communication arise from both organisational and interpersonal sources. They distort, delay or block the intended meaning of messages. Since communication forms the basis of coordination, leadership, supervision and decision making, the presence of such barriers reduces organisational effectiveness. Effective communication therefore requires recognition and removal of these barriers so that the receiver understands the message exactly as intended by the sender.

Subject: Organizational Behaviour (PGCO – I)

Course: PGDP – NSOU M.Com.

Unit V: Motivation

Q. 1. What are two factors under Herzberg's theory of motivation?

Answer: Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory, also known as the Motivation-Hygiene Theory, states that employee motivation depends on two distinct categories of factors.

The first category is Hygiene Factors. These factors do not create motivation, but their absence causes dissatisfaction among employees. Even when they are adequately provided, they do not necessarily motivate workers to perform better. According to the PDF, examples of hygiene factors include pay, promotion, and working conditions.

The second category is Motivating Factors. These factors create job satisfaction and encourage employees to perform better. They are directly related to the nature of the work and personal growth. Examples given in the PDF include recognition, autonomy, responsibility, and achievement.

Therefore, Herzberg concluded that merely removing dissatisfaction through hygiene factors is not enough. Managers must also provide motivating factors to achieve genuine employee motivation and satisfaction. 

Q. 2. State the topmost need of the need-hierarchy of A. Maslow.

Answer: According to A. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory, human needs are arranged in five levels. These are Physiological Needs, Safety Needs, Affiliation Needs, Esteem Needs, and Self-Actualisation Needs. The topmost need in this hierarchy is Self-Actualisation. It represents the highest level of human need where an individual strives for self-fulfilment, happiness, peace, and realizing his or her fullest potential. According to the theory, this need becomes important only after the lower-level needs have been reasonably satisfied. 

Q. 3. Give the equation for Motivation Potential Force.

Answer: According to the Expectancy Model of Motivation discussed in the PDF, Motivation Potential Force or Motivational Force is represented by the following equation:

M = E × I × V

Where

M = Motivational Force

E = Expectancy

I = Instrumentality

V = Valence

The theory explains that motivation depends on three factors working together. A worker must believe that effort will lead to good performance (Expectancy), that good performance will result in rewards (Instrumentality), and that the rewards are valuable to him or her (Valence). If any one of these factors is absent or very low, overall motivation will also be low. 

Q. 4. What does 'E' stand for in ERG theory?

Answer: In ERG Theory proposed by C. Alderfer, the letter "E" stands for Existence.

Existence refers to the basic needs required for human survival. According to the PDF, it combines Maslow's Physiological Needs and Safety Needs. These include necessities such as food, shelter, security, and protection. ERG Theory groups human needs into three categories:

Existence

Relatedness

Growth

Thus, "E" in ERG Theory represents Existence, which consists of the fundamental physiological and safety requirements of individuals. 

Q. 5. Who is the advocate of Theory X & Y?

Answer: Douglas McGregor is the advocate of Theory X and Theory Y. According to McGregor, there are two different assumptions about human behaviour at work.

Theory X assumes that people generally dislike work, avoid responsibility, and need coercion, punishment, or strict supervision to perform their duties. Such employees are motivated mainly by fear of punishment or external control.

Theory Y assumes that people naturally accept work, enjoy taking responsibility, seek opportunities for growth, and can motivate themselves when they are properly encouraged. These employees respond better to praise, recognition, rewards, and opportunities for achievement.

McGregor also related these ideas to the "carrot and stick" approach, where Theory Y employees are motivated by rewards, while Theory X employees are motivated by fear of punishment. 

Q. 6. Define "goal specificity".

Answer: Goal specificity refers to defining a goal in clear, precise and measurable terms. It identifies the target in specific terms so that workers know exactly what they are expected to achieve.

For example, instead of asking a worker to "do your best," a specific goal may require the worker to produce 60 units per week. Such a goal enables employees to understand their target clearly, measure their performance accurately, know the extent of their achievement, and determine the rewards they deserve. Specific goals reduce ambiguity and provide clear direction, resulting in improved performance and greater satisfaction. 

Q. 7. What does cognitive evaluation hypothesize?

Answer: The Cognitive Evaluation or Self-Determination Theory hypothesizes that extrinsic rewards may sometimes reduce a person's intrinsic interest in work. When employees believe they are working mainly because of external rewards such as money, they may lose the enjoyment and satisfaction that come from performing the work for its own sake.

The theory further explains that people are more motivated when they feel they have control over their actions, enjoy autonomy in their work, and maintain positive relationships with others. However, extrinsic rewards are not always harmful. They can strengthen intrinsic motivation if they are consistent with the worker's interests and core values. Therefore, managers should make work meaningful, provide recognition, support employee development, and use rewards in a way that enhances rather than reduces intrinsic motivation. 

Q. 8. How is ERG theory different from Need theory?

Answer: ERG Theory, developed by C. Alderfer, differs from McClelland's Need Theory in several important ways.

ERG Theory classifies human needs into three categories:

Existence needs, which include physiological and safety needs.

Relatedness needs, which correspond to social or affiliation needs.

Growth needs, which include esteem and self-development needs.

Alderfer also proposed the frustration-regression hypothesis. According to this idea, if a higher-level need cannot be satisfied, an individual may become frustrated and return to lower-level needs for satisfaction. Thus, movement between needs can occur both upward and downward.

In contrast, McClelland's Need Theory identifies three learned needs:

Need for Achievement (nAch),

Need for Affiliation (nAff), and

Need for Power (nPow).

McClelland placed greater emphasis on the need for achievement, believing that highly achievement-oriented individuals are strongly motivated. His theory focuses on these learned motivational needs rather than on frustration and regression between different levels of needs.

Therefore, the major difference is that ERG Theory explains motivation through Existence, Relatedness and Growth needs together with the frustration-regression concept, whereas Need Theory explains motivation through the three learned needs of achievement, affiliation and power, with particular emphasis on achievement.

Q. 9. What does 'valence' indicate?

Answer: According to the Expectancy Model of Motivation, valence refers to the value or importance that a worker assigns to a particular reward. It indicates how attractive or desirable the expected reward is to an employee. A reward with high valence motivates an employee more strongly because it satisfies the individual's personal needs and preferences.

The expectancy model states that motivation depends upon three factors:

i. Expectancy – The belief that effort will lead to better performance.

ii. Instrumentality – The belief that good performance will result in rewards.

iii. Valence – The value that the worker assigns to the reward.

According to the model, motivation can be expressed as:

M = E × I × V

Where:

M = Motivational Force

E = Expectancy

I = Instrumentality

V = Valence

Before putting maximum effort into work, employees generally ask themselves three questions:

i. If I put in maximum effort, will my performance be appreciated?

ii. If my performance is appreciated, will I receive rewards?

iii. Are the rewards valuable and attractive to me?

If the answer to all these questions is "Yes", the worker becomes motivated. Thus, valence indicates the attractiveness or desirability of the reward from the employee's point of view. 

Q. 10. State the advantages and disadvantages of MBO.

Answer: Management by Objectives (MBO) is an extension of Goal Setting Theory. It is a systematic process in which managers and employees jointly establish objectives and formulate policies to achieve them. MBO is based on the belief that employee participation in goal setting increases commitment and motivation. 

Advantages of MBO

i. It is a result-oriented process that helps the organisation achieve better performance.

ii. Measurable performance standards are established, making performance control more effective.

iii. Goals are designed according to the abilities of individual workers, ensuring proper matching between jobs and employees.

iv. Since employees participate in setting goals, they consider the objectives as their own rather than imposed by management.

v. Workers clearly understand what is expected from them, reducing ambiguity.

vi. Periodic performance evaluation helps identify employee limitations and training needs.

vii. It provides continuous monitoring of work, allowing deviations to be detected and corrected promptly.

viii. Performance appraisal becomes objective, reducing bias and favouritism.

ix. MBO improves employee morale, commitment, satisfaction and pride because workers understand how their contributions help achieve organisational goals. 

Disadvantages of MBO

i. Top management may not fully support MBO because it limits their exclusive decision-making authority.

ii. Many employees remain suspicious of management's intentions and may view MBO merely as another managerial strategy.

iii. MBO places greater emphasis on quantity, which may adversely affect quality.

iv. It focuses mainly on short-term objectives, often neglecting long-term planning.

v. The process of joint decision-making is time-consuming.

vi. Continuous follow-up is essential for MBO, but this is often lacking in practice.

vii. Integrating MBO with departmental goals is difficult, although such integration is essential for its success. 

Q. 11. Critically examine the Equity theory of Motivation.

Answer: The Equity Theory of Motivation, developed by J. Stacy Adams, is based on the idea that employees are motivated when they believe they are treated fairly, equally and equitably. The theory suggests that workers compare their contributions and rewards with those of others. If they perceive fairness, they remain motivated. If they perceive unfairness, dissatisfaction and tension arise. 

According to the theory, perceived inequity creates resentment among workers. Employees then try to reduce this feeling of inequity. The greater the perceived inequity, the greater the tension and the stronger the desire to remove it.

Employees may respond to perceived inequity in several ways:

i. They may reduce their work effort to match the compensation they receive.

ii. They may attempt to alter their outcomes to restore equity.

iii. They may demand higher wages or better working conditions.

iv. They may change the effort-productivity ratio in their favour.

v. They may resign from the organisation.

vi. They may change their own perception and convince themselves that inequity does not actually exist. 

The theory explains that employees compare themselves with others in four different ways:

i. Self-inside – Comparison with colleagues within the same organisation.

ii. Self-outside – Comparison with workers outside the organisation.

iii. Other-inside – Comparison with another group within the organisation.

iv. Other-outside – Comparison with workers in another organisation. 

The theory has also been expanded into the concept of Organisational Justice, which consists of three components:

i. Distributive Justice – Employees feel they receive the rewards they deserve.

ii. Procedural Justice – Employees believe organisational procedures are fair.

iii. Interactional Justice – Employees feel they are treated with dignity and respect by supervisors. 

Critical Evaluation

Merits

i. It highlights the importance of fairness in employee motivation.

ii. It recognises that employee perceptions significantly influence behaviour.

iii. It explains why employees react differently to similar rewards.

iv. It emphasises fair treatment and organisational justice as important motivational factors.

Limitations

i. The theory mainly focuses on perceived fairness, which is subjective and may not reflect actual reality.

ii. Different employees may perceive the same situation differently, making it difficult for managers to ensure equity.

iii. The theory primarily concentrates on reward and pay equity and gives less attention to other motivational factors.

iv. Measuring employee perceptions accurately is difficult in practice.

Thus, Equity Theory provides valuable insight into the importance of fairness and justice in motivating employees, but its practical application is limited because perceptions differ from person to person. 

Q. 12. Discuss how the behaviour of workers can be modified.

Answer: The Behaviour Modification or Reinforcement Theory explains that employees do not always behave in the way managers desire. Therefore, their behaviour should be modified and directed towards organisational goals through reinforcement. Unlike other motivation theories that focus on internal needs, reinforcement theory concentrates on the consequences of behaviour. Desired behaviour is strengthened by appropriate rewards, while undesirable behaviour is discouraged through punishment or withdrawal of rewards. 

The theory is mainly based on B. F. Skinner's Operant Conditioning Theory. According to this theory, behaviour is influenced by its consequences. If favourable reinforcement follows a particular behaviour, the employee is likely to repeat that behaviour. 

Types of Reinforcement

(i) Positive Reinforcement:

Positive reinforcement involves providing something desirable that employees like after good performance. Rewards, praise, recognition, incentives and bonuses encourage workers to repeat desirable behaviour.

(ii) Negative Reinforcement:

Negative reinforcement involves removing something unpleasant when employees perform the desired behaviour. By eliminating undesirable conditions, managers encourage workers to continue behaving positively.

(iii) Punishment:

Punishment means imposing an unpleasant consequence for undesirable behaviour. It discourages employees from repeating inappropriate actions.

(iv) Extinction:

Extinction means withdrawing benefits or rewards that employees previously enjoyed. As the reinforcement is removed, the undesirable behaviour gradually disappears. 

(v) Social Learning Theory:

The theory also explains that employees learn by observing others and through direct experience. Workers observe the behaviour of supervisors, colleagues and successful employees and imitate behaviours that are rewarded.

The process of social learning involves four stages:

i. Attention – The employee must carefully observe the behaviour.

ii. Retention – The observed behaviour must be remembered.

iii. Reproduction – The employee must have the ability to imitate the behaviour.

iv. Reinforcement – Positive rewards encourage repetition of the behaviour. 

Applications

The theory can be applied in practice through bonuses, incentives, commissions, praise, promotions and recognition. For example, workers may produce more when they expect a bonus, and salespersons may work harder when higher commissions are offered. Conversely, if promised rewards are not given, employees may refuse to exert extra effort in the future. 

Limitations

Although reinforcement theory is highly practical, it has certain limitations.

i. It ignores employees' feelings, attitudes and internal psychological factors.

ii. The same reinforcement may not motivate all workers equally.

iii. Some reinforcement methods may become counterproductive if applied improperly.

Thus, Behaviour Modification Theory suggests that worker behaviour can be effectively changed through appropriate reinforcement, punishment and observational learning. When used carefully, reinforcement techniques help managers improve employee performance and direct behaviour towards organisational objectives.

Subject: Organizational Behaviour (PGCO – I)

Course: PGDP – NSOU M.Com.

Unit VI: Leadership 

Q. 1. Are leaders born or made?

Answer: According to the PDF, the early Trait Theory believed that leaders are born because leadership was considered an inborn personality trait. However, later research showed that leadership also depends on behaviour, training, experience and situational factors. The discussion on Charismatic Leadership further explains that charisma can be partly inherited and partly developed through training and practice. Therefore, the PDF concludes that there is no straight answer to this question. Favourable contributions of both inherited qualities and learning make an effective leader. 

Q. 2. Name the leadership theory that came out from Ohio State studies.

Answer: The leadership theory that emerged from the Ohio State Studies is the Behavioural Theory of Leadership. The Ohio State researchers identified two major dimensions of leadership behaviour:

i. Initiating Structure

ii. Consideration

These two dimensions became the foundation of behavioural leadership theory. 

Q. 3. Who are the contributors to the concept of Managerial Grid?

Answer: The concept of the Managerial Grid was developed by Blake and Mouton. They presented leadership styles based on two dimensions:

i. Concern for Production

ii. Concern for People

Their Managerial Grid identifies five basic leadership styles such as Team Management, Country Club Management, Task Management, Middle-of-the-Road Management and Impoverished Management. 

Q. 4. Who is the principal advocate of Path-Goal Theory?

Answer: The principal advocate of the Path-Goal Theory is Robert House. According to the theory, the leader should clarify the path for followers to achieve their goals by removing obstacles and providing necessary information, support and resources. Depending on the situation, the leader may adopt directive, supportive, participative or task-oriented leadership styles. 

Q. 5. What does AI style of leadership stand for?

Answer: AI stands for Autocratic I in the Vroom-Yetton Leader Participation Model. In the Autocratic I (AI) style, the leader alone makes the decision without involving the subordinates in the decision-making process. It represents the highest degree of centralized decision-making. 

Q. 6. Give the full form of LMX Theory.

Answer: LMX stands for Leader-Member Exchange Theory. This theory, advocated by G. Graen and his associates, focuses on the quality of the relationship between leaders and followers. It explains that leaders often develop different relationships with different followers, creating an in-group and an out-group based on the nature of their interactions. 

Q. 7. What do you mean by "B" of B-C-D Theory of Leadership?

Answer: According to the discussion on Authentic Leadership in the PDF, the "B" in the B-C-D Theory of Leadership stands for Benevolence. The model explains that a leader's Integrity, Benevolence and Ability help in developing trust among followers, which ultimately leads to higher group productivity and effectiveness. Benevolence refers to the leader's goodwill, concern and care for the welfare of followers. 

Q. 8. Define Servant Leadership.

Answer: Servant Leadership is a style of leadership in which the leader behaves like a servant to the organisation and its followers. It is considered an extension of authentic or ethical leadership. A servant leader places the needs of followers above personal interests and helps them grow and develop. Such leaders prefer persuasion rather than authority, listening rather than directing, and acceptance rather than imposing decisions. By serving others, they increase followers' commitment, strengthen team potential and improve overall group performance. 

Q. 9. Mention the characteristics of Authentic Leadership.

Answer: Authentic Leadership is a leadership approach based on ethics, values, honesty and trust. According to the study material, leadership should not be judged only by effectiveness, but also by the values and ethics possessed by the leader. An authentic leader remains true to himself or herself and to the followers. The characteristics of Authentic Leadership are:

i. Integrity: An authentic leader possesses strong moral principles and always acts honestly and ethically.

ii. Honesty: Such leaders are truthful in their words and actions, creating confidence among followers.

iii. Selflessness: They place the interests of the organisation and followers above their personal interests.

iv. Humbleness: Authentic leaders remain modest and do not misuse their authority or position.

v. Commitment to Ideals: They consistently follow their own beliefs and values instead of compromising them for personal gain.

vi. Trust Building: Because of their integrity, benevolence and ability, followers develop faith and trust in them.

vii. Improved Group Productivity and Effectiveness: The trust created by authentic leadership enhances group performance, productivity and organisational effectiveness.

Thus, authentic leadership is based on integrity, honesty, selflessness, humility and trust, making it an essential form of leadership for achieving long-term organisational effectiveness. 

Q. 10. Distinguish between Transactional and Transformational Leadership.

Answer: Transactional Leadership and Transformational Leadership are two important approaches to leadership. According to the study material, transformational leaders change the awareness and thinking of followers by helping them look at old problems in new ways. In contrast, transactional leaders guide followers towards established goals and focus on analysing and maintaining existing systems. 

Transactional leadership primarily aims at achieving predetermined objectives through supervision, rewards and performance-based exchanges. It emphasizes maintaining stability, following established procedures and ensuring that employees perform according to expectations. It is more suitable in situations where routine work, discipline and adherence to rules are important.

Transformational leadership, on the other hand, inspires followers to think creatively, accept innovation and achieve higher levels of performance. It increases followers' self-confidence, builds commitment towards the organisation and develops trust between leaders and followers. It also encourages decentralisation, innovation and long-term organisational growth.

Transformational leadership is characterised by four important elements: Idealised Influence, Inspirational Motivation, Intellectual Stimulation and Individualized Consideration. These qualities help employees become more innovative, productive and satisfied with their work. 

However, transactional and transformational leadership are not opposite approaches. Instead, they complement each other. A leader often begins with transactional leadership and gradually develops into a transformational leader. 

Q. 11. What do you mean by "Country Club" management style?

Answer: Country Club Management Style is one of the leadership styles suggested by Blake and Mouton's Managerial Grid. It is represented by the 1:9 position, where the leader shows a very high concern for people but a low concern for production. 

In this style, the leader mainly focuses on employee welfare, comfort and satisfaction. Friendly relationships, good working conditions and the well-being of employees receive maximum importance, while task accomplishment and production are given comparatively less attention. Because of its strong people orientation and weak task orientation, this style is known as the Country Club or People-oriented management style.

Q. 12. What does high control situation indicate in Situational Theory of Leadership?

Answer: According to Fiedler's Situational Theory of Leadership, the favourableness of a leadership situation depends on three factors:

i. Leader-member relations

ii. Task structure

iii. Position power

A High Control Situation exists when all three of these factors are favourable. This means that:

• The leader enjoys good relations with followers.

• The tasks are clearly defined and well structured.

• The leader possesses strong position power to reward or punish subordinates.

In such a situation, the leader has maximum control over followers and their performance. According to the study material, task-oriented leadership performs best under High Control Situations. 

Q. 13. Which theory of leadership assume that leaders are born?

Answer: The Trait Theory of Leadership assumes that leaders are born, not made. According to this theory, leadership is the result of certain inborn personal characteristics or traits that distinguish leaders from non-leaders. Early researchers believed that successful leaders naturally possess qualities such as achievement orientation, persistence, creativity, initiative, emotional intelligence, courage, tolerance of ambiguity and the ability to influence others. Although the theory recognises the importance of inherited leadership traits, the study material also points out that modern thinkers do not fully accept the idea that leaders are born. They believe that leadership is also influenced by behaviour and situational factors. Nevertheless, Trait Theory remains the leadership theory that is based on the assumption that leaders are born.

Q. 14. How do we differentiate between leadership and management?

Answer: Leadership and management are closely related concepts, but they are not synonymous. While both are essential for the success of an organisation, they differ in their nature, approach, and functions.

Management is a formal position of authority within an organisation. A manager performs planning, organising, staffing, directing, and controlling activities to achieve organisational objectives. Leadership, on the other hand, is the process of influencing and inspiring people to work willingly and enthusiastically towards common goals. Leadership is based on interpersonal influence rather than formal authority. 

The major differences between leadership and management are as follows:

i. Nature:

Management is a formal position or authority granted by the organisation. Leadership is an interpersonal process of influencing people.

ii. Basis of Power:

Managers exercise positional or official power. Leaders depend on their personal influence, emotional appeal and the willingness of followers.

iii. Primary Function:

Managers focus on planning, organising and controlling organisational activities. Leaders focus on setting direction, inspiring people and creating a vision.

iv. Staffing and Alignment:

Managers appoint and allocate people to different jobs through staffing. Leaders align people with the organisational vision and motivate them to achieve common goals.

v. Motivation:

Managers ensure that work is completed according to plans and standards. Leaders motivate employees to perform willingly, enthusiastically and competently.

vi. Relationship with Followers:

Subordinates obey managers because of formal authority. Followers voluntarily follow leaders because of trust, confidence and inspiration.

vii. Influence:

The influence of managers is generally one-sided and based on authority. Leadership involves mutual influence where leaders influence followers and followers also influence leaders.

viii. Scope:

A leader can generally perform the functions of a manager effectively. However, every manager may not necessarily possess leadership qualities.

Thus, management provides order, coordination and control, whereas leadership provides inspiration, vision and commitment. According to the text, all leaders are managers, but all managers are not leaders. Effective organisations require both good management and effective leadership for long-term success. 

Q. 15. Critically examine the Trait Theory of Leadership.

Answer: The Trait Theory of Leadership is one of the earliest theories of leadership. It argues that effective leaders possess certain personal characteristics or traits that distinguish them from non-leaders. According to this theory, leadership is largely associated with the personality and inherent qualities of an individual. 

R. Stogdill examined more than 5,000 studies on leadership and identified several traits commonly associated with successful leaders. These include:

i. Desire for accomplishment.

ii. Persistent pursuit of goals.

iii. Creativity.

iv. Initiative.

v. Courage to accept consequences.

vi. Emotional intelligence.

vii. Tolerance of ambiguity.

viii. Ability to influence others.

ix. Charismatic approach.

Later, the Big Five Personality Model strengthened the theory by showing that extraversion has the strongest relationship with leadership effectiveness, while conscientiousness and openness to experience also contribute significantly. Emotional intelligence, especially empathy, helps leaders understand followers' needs, manage emotions effectively and improve organisational performance. 

Merits of the Trait Theory

i. It recognises that some people naturally possess qualities that make them more suitable for leadership.

ii. It acknowledges that heredity influences personality development and therefore inborn qualities cannot be ignored.

iii. It provides a useful basis for identifying and selecting potential leaders.

iv. It explains that personal traits often have a deeper influence on behaviour, just as the hidden portion of an iceberg is larger than the visible part.

v. The incorporation of the Big Five Personality Model has improved the predictive value of the theory.

Limitations of the Trait Theory

i. The number of proposed leadership traits is extremely large and no universally accepted list has emerged.

ii. The theory assumes that leaders are born rather than made, which is not accepted by many contemporary scholars.

iii. It ignores important situational and environmental factors that influence leadership effectiveness.

iv. The same traits may be found in both successful and unsuccessful leaders.

v. A trait that is beneficial in one situation may become harmful in another.

Critical Evaluation

The Trait Theory provides valuable insights into the importance of personality characteristics in leadership and serves as a useful guide for leadership selection and development. However, leadership effectiveness cannot be explained solely by personal traits because organisational situations, follower characteristics and environmental conditions also influence success. Therefore, while the theory remains relevant, it cannot fully explain leadership without considering behavioural and situational factors. 

Q. 16. How can we enhance the leadership effectiveness?

Answer: Leadership effectiveness does not depend on a single leadership style. According to the unit, effective leadership requires selecting a style appropriate to the situation and developing several organisational capabilities. 

The following measures can enhance leadership effectiveness:

i. Raising the competence of the group:

Competence refers to the knowledge, understanding and skills required to perform work effectively. Leaders should understand the training needs of employees, prepare suitable strategies and implement them successfully so that the team's competence improves.

ii. Raising the commitment level of members:

Competence alone is insufficient if employees are not motivated and committed. Leaders must create willingness, enthusiasm and involvement among employees so that they utilise their full potential and contribute effectively to organisational objectives.

iii. Raising the level of teamwork:

Modern organisations require teamwork rather than isolated individual effort. Leaders should strengthen team spirit by:

a) Recognising the importance of teamwork.

b) Making employees aware of the benefits of working as a team.

c) Allocating resources to teams instead of individuals.

d) Ensuring objective and unbiased performance appraisal.

e) Arranging programmes to reduce conflicts and increase collaboration.

Strong teamwork creates synergy and improves organisational productivity.

iv. Raising the development level:

The ultimate objective of leadership is organisational development. Leaders should integrate competence, commitment and teamwork so that all organisational resources move towards overall development. Leadership becomes successful only when followers respond positively and organisational goals are achieved.

Thus, leadership effectiveness depends on matching leadership style with the situation while continuously improving employee competence, commitment, teamwork and organisational development. Effective leadership is measured by the quality of leadership processes, whereas successful leadership is measured by organisational results. 

Q. 17. Is charismatic leadership universally effective?

Answer: No, charismatic leadership is not universally effective. Although it produces many positive outcomes, the unit clearly points out that it also has significant limitations and may not be suitable in every situation. 

Charismatic leadership refers to a combination of exceptional qualities through which a leader inspires followers. According to Robert House, charismatic leaders possess characteristics such as:

i. Vision.

ii. Personal risk-taking.

iii. Sensitivity to followers' needs.

iv. Unconventional behaviour.

Positive aspects of charismatic leadership

i. It increases employee satisfaction and performance.

ii. Employees become highly motivated and enthusiastic.

iii. Followers develop a strong sense of belonging to the organisation.

iv. Employees identify personally with the leader and willingly support organisational goals.

Dark side of charismatic leadership

i. Charismatic leaders may place their personal interests above organisational goals.

ii. They may misuse organisational resources for personal benefit.

iii. Their persuasive ability may lead followers towards harmful or disastrous objectives, as illustrated by examples such as Hitler.

iv. Charismatic leadership is particularly effective during crises, but after the crisis it may become a liability.

v. Strong belief in one's own infallibility may make charismatic leaders rigid and unwilling to accept criticism or change.

vi. History shows that while some charismatic leaders like Mahatma Gandhi, Martin Luther King Jr. and John F. Kennedy used charisma positively, others caused widespread destruction through misuse of their influence.

Conclusion

Therefore, charismatic leadership cannot be considered universally effective. Its success depends on the leader's ethics, values, organisational circumstances and the way charisma is used. When guided by ethical principles it can produce remarkable results, but when driven by personal ambition it may become dangerous for both organisations and society. 

Q. 18. State the bright side as well as the dark side of Fiedler's Theory of Leadership.

Answer: Fiedler's Contingency Theory states that leadership effectiveness depends upon the interaction between the leader's style and the favourableness of the situation. Leaders may be task-oriented or relation-oriented, and the effectiveness of each style depends on three situational variables: leader-member relations, task structure and position power. 

Bright Side of Fiedler's Theory

i. It recognises that no single leadership style is suitable for every situation.

ii. It considers all three important components of leadership, namely the leader, the followers and the situation.

iii. It explains that task-oriented leadership performs best in high-control and low-control situations, whereas relation-oriented leadership is more effective in moderate-control situations.

iv. It provides a practical framework for selecting an appropriate leadership style according to situational favourableness.

v. It broadens leadership theory by moving beyond personality traits and recognising the importance of environmental factors.

Dark Side of Fiedler's Theory

i. The theory challenges the idea of a universal leadership style and suggests that no single theory can explain leadership in all situations.

ii. It may encourage leaders to justify almost any behaviour in the name of situational requirements.

iii. Since leadership behaviour depends heavily on changing situations, predicting leadership effectiveness becomes difficult.

iv. The theory offers limited flexibility because leaders may need to change situations rather than adapt their own leadership style.

Conclusion

Fiedler's Theory made a significant contribution by introducing the contingency approach to leadership and recognising the combined influence of leaders, followers and situations. However, its rejection of universal leadership principles and its dependence on situational variables limit its applicability in all organisational settings.

Subject: Organizational Behaviour (PGCO – I)

Course: PGDP – NSOU M.Com.

Unit VII: Organisational Culture and Stress Management 

Q. 1. Name two characteristics of culture.

Answer: According to the given study material, two important characteristics of culture are:

(i) Behavioural Regularities: Members of an organisation use common language, terminology and rituals, which create uniform patterns of behaviour.

(ii) Dominant Values: These are the stable beliefs and values that members consider important and which guide their actions and decisions. 

Q. 2. What are the stages of socialisation?

Answer: The process of organisational socialisation takes place in three stages:

(i) Pre-arrival Stage: Before joining the organisation, new employees bring their own values, attitudes and expectations.

(ii) Encounter Stage: After joining, employees compare their expectations with the actual organisational environment and work culture.

(iii) Metamorphosis Stage: Employees gradually adjust themselves, accept the organisational culture and become fully integrated into the organisation. 

Q. 3. Mention one situation that forces to change culture.

Answer: One important situation that forces an organisation to change its culture is a drastic change in the external environment, such as technological advancement, socio-economic changes or the need for new product development. 

Q. 4. Name two source of learning culture.

Answer: Two important sources through which employees learn organisational culture are:

(i) Stories

(ii) Rituals

Other sources mentioned in the text are material symbols and language. 

Q. 5. What are three stages of GAS in the context of stress?

Answer: According to Hans Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS), stress develops through three stages:

(i) Alarm Stage

(ii) Resistance Stage

(iii) Exhaustion Stage 

Q. 6. Name two stress including organisational factors.

Answer: Two organisational factors that create stress are:

(i) Role Ambiguity

(ii) Role Conflict

Other organisational stressors mentioned include role overload, role underload, ineffective communication and job change. 

Q. 7. Mention the most stressful life event as was stated by Holmes and Rahe.

Answer: According to Holmes and Rahe, the most stressful life event is the death of a spouse. 

Q. 8. Name one way of concentration of mind.

Answer: One effective way of concentrating the mind mentioned in the study material is meditation. 

Q. 9. Define organisational Culture.

Answer: Organisational culture is defined as a system of shared meanings, values and beliefs held by the members of an organisation that distinguishes it from other organisations. Edgar Schein also defined it as a pattern of basic assumptions developed by a group and taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think and feel. 

Q. 10. How can you define stress?

Answer: Stress is a state of tension experienced by an individual when faced with extraordinary demands, constraints or opportunities. It is the psychological and physical response of a person to situations that disturb normal balance and require adjustment. 

Q. 11. What do you mean by weak culture?

Answer: A weak culture is one in which employees do not strongly share or agree upon the organisation's core values. Members have widely differing opinions, resulting in disagreement, poor unity, lower group performance and reduced organisational effectiveness. 

Q. 12. Narrate briefly the metamorphosis stage of socialisation.

Answer: The metamorphosis stage is the final and most important stage of the organisational socialisation process. During this stage, new employees gradually change their attitudes, behaviour and work habits so that they become compatible with the organisational culture. Those who cannot adjust either resign from the organisation or become deviant employees, whereas most employees successfully adapt themselves to the organisational values and norms.

The changes during this stage may occur gradually or suddenly depending on the individual and the organisation. The metamorphosis process mainly involves two types of practices:

(i) Institutional Practices:

These are formal, collective, fixed and sequential programmes designed by the organisation. They help standardise employee behaviour, reduce differences among newcomers and encourage them to adopt organisational values.

(ii) Individual Practices:

These are informal and flexible methods through which employees overcome the initial "honeymoon" or adjustment phase. Employees gradually reconcile the gap between their expectations and organisational reality. Although job satisfaction may temporarily decline during adjustment, it increases again when employees fully internalise organisational norms.

The metamorphosis stage is complete when employees understand the organisational system, accept its culture, know what is expected from them and develop commitment towards the organisation. This ultimately improves productivity, whereas failure to adapt often leads to employee turnover. 

Q. 13. How does role conflict generate stress?

Answer: Role conflict arises when there is a mismatch between the role expected from an employee and the role actually performed. Such conflicts create confusion, frustration and psychological pressure, resulting in stress.

Role conflict generates stress in the following ways:

(i) When employees are required to perform duties that they personally dislike or do not agree with, they experience mental discomfort and stress.

(ii) When different people expect contradictory things from the same employee, conflict arises. For example, one supervisor may demand high-quality work while another insists on completing the work within a very short time. Fulfilling both expectations simultaneously becomes difficult and stressful.

(iii) Employees often have to perform multiple roles at the same time. Giving importance to one role may result in neglecting another equally important role, creating feelings of guilt, anxiety and stress.

(iv) Continuous role conflict reduces job satisfaction, affects performance and may ultimately lead to emotional exhaustion if not resolved properly. 

Q. 14. What kinds of jobs are stressful?

Answer: Different jobs create different levels of stress depending on their responsibilities, work environment and nature of duties. The jobs generally considered more stressful include:

(i) Police officers, because they deal with crime, emergencies and public safety.

(ii) Firefighters, as they constantly face dangerous situations and life-threatening emergencies.

(iii) Nurses, because they provide continuous patient care, handle emergencies and work under heavy emotional pressure.

(iv) Entrepreneurs, who face business risks, uncertainty and responsibility for organisational success.

(v) Managerial and supervisory jobs are also stressful because they involve responsibility for people, decision-making and conflict resolution.

Jobs become stressful due to several factors such as:

(a) Role ambiguity.

(b) Role conflict.

(c) Role overload.

(d) Role underload.

(e) Poor communication.

(f) Frequent job changes.

(g) Heavy responsibility.

(h) Poor working conditions.

(i) Unhealthy interpersonal relationships.

(j) Monotonous, repetitive and uninteresting jobs.

Although teachers, clerks and bank tellers generally experience comparatively lower stress than emergency-service professionals, any job can become stressful if organisational conditions are unfavourable. 

Q. 15. Write note on Social Readjustment Rating Scale.

Answer: The Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) was developed by T. H. Holmes and R. H. Rahe of the University of Washington to measure the amount of stress created by important life events. The scale assigns numerical values to various life events according to their stress potential. A score of 100 represents the highest level of stress.

Some important life events and their stress values are:

Death of spouse – 100

Divorce – 73

Marital separation – 65

Jail term – 63

Death of a close family member – 63

Personal injury or illness – 53

Marriage – 50

Loss of job – 47

Retirement – 45

Sexual difficulties – 43

The scale shows that not only negative events but also positive events, such as marriage and retirement, require significant adjustment and therefore create stress.

Inspired by Holmes and Rahe, Dr. Sam Batliwala analysed stress among Indian executives and identified several major stress-producing social events in India, including illness of family members, conflicts with spouse, comparison by spouse with others, neighbourhood noise pollution and poor academic performance of children.

The Social Readjustment Rating Scale is therefore a valuable tool for understanding how life changes contribute to stress and the need for psychological adjustment. 

Q. 16. How does stress influence one's behaviour?

Answer: Stress affects an individual's physical health, psychological condition and behavioural responses. Behavioural scientists explain that stress influences behaviour in many negative ways.

The important behavioural effects of stress include:

(i) Excessive eating or smoking.

(ii) Increased consumption of alcohol.

(iii) Irritability and anger.

(iv) Withdrawal from social interactions.

(v) Social isolation.

(vi) Changes in appetite and body weight.

(vii) Difficulty in concentration.

(viii) Introverted behaviour.

(ix) Aggressive behaviour.

(x) In severe cases, suicidal thoughts.

Stress also produces psychological effects such as depression, low self-confidence, helplessness, hopelessness, guilt and excessive anxiety.

Physiologically, prolonged stress may result in insomnia, increased heartbeat, rapid breathing, high blood pressure, ulcers, skin disorders, sexual problems and even heart attacks due to weakening of the immune system.

Thus, stress significantly changes an individual's behaviour, reduces emotional stability, lowers work performance and adversely affects overall quality of life. 

Q. 17. Discuss the ways and means for creating and maintaining culture.

Answer: Organisational culture is created through deliberate efforts and maintained through continuous reinforcement. A strong organisational culture promotes commitment, cooperation and organisational effectiveness.

(a) Creating Culture:

The creation of organisational culture generally follows these steps:

(i) The founder introduces the original vision and philosophy of the organisation.

(ii) The founder selects a core group of key individuals who share the founder's beliefs.

(iii) The core group works together to establish common values and practices.

(iv) Employees are recruited who fit these values.

(v) The beliefs and practices of the core group are gradually spread throughout the organisation until they become the accepted organisational culture.

(b) Maintaining Culture:

Once culture is established, it must be preserved through several organisational practices.

(c) Selection of Employees:

Employees should be selected not only for their ability but also for their compatibility with organisational values. The organisation should have a clear vision and mission, provide a realistic job preview and recruit people whose values match those of the organisation.

(d) Placement and Performance Appraisal:

Proper placement ensures that the right person occupies the right job. Objective performance appraisal, fair promotion policies and merit-based rewards encourage employees to maintain organisational culture and serve as role models for newcomers.

(e) Role of Top Management:

Top managers maintain culture by leading through personal example. Their commitment to trust, transparency and organisational values strongly influences employee behaviour. They should also organise counselling programmes and initiatives that reinforce organisational culture.

(f) Socialisation:

Continuous orientation, training and interaction with experienced employees help newcomers understand and accept organisational values. Socialisation occurs through the pre-arrival stage, encounter stage and metamorphosis stage, enabling employees to internalise organisational norms.

(g) Creating Ethical Culture:

An ethical culture can be developed by acting as visible role models, communicating ethical expectations, providing ethical training, rewarding ethical behaviour and punishing unethical conduct.

(h) Creating Spiritual Culture:

A spiritual culture focuses on employees' inner well-being. It promotes benevolence, trust, mutual respect, strong values and open-mindedness.

(i) Creating Positive Culture:

Managers should encourage employees to discover their strengths, appreciate good performance and emphasise continuous growth, innovation and creativity. Such practices improve employee morale and organisational performance.

Thus, organisational culture is created through leadership, shared values and systematic socialisation, and maintained through proper recruitment, leadership example, employee development, ethical practices and continuous reinforcement of organisational values.

Q. 18. Why and how is the organisational culture changed?

Answer: Organisational culture is the system of shared values, beliefs and practices that guides the behaviour of employees. Although culture provides stability, organisations sometimes need to change their existing culture to meet new environmental and business requirements. According to the study material, culture change becomes necessary when the existing culture no longer supports organisational goals. 

Why organisational culture is changed:

An organisation changes its culture for the following reasons:

i. Drastic changes in the external environment.

ii. Introduction of new products and services.

iii. Adoption of advanced information technology.

iv. Changes in socio-economic conditions.

v. Mergers and acquisitions.

vi. Emergence of relationship-based enterprises.

vii. Economic crises and similar business challenges.

The organisation may also be compelled to change its culture because the old culture becomes unsuitable for the new business environment. 

Barriers to changing organisational culture:

Changing culture is not easy because of several obstacles:

i. Resistance to change and preference for status quo.

ii. Existing mindset of employees.

iii. Established formal and informal relationships.

iv. Existing organisational roles.

v. Organisational structure.

vi. Opposition from unions, management groups or even customers.

How organisational culture is changed:

The organisational culture is changed by the following steps:

i. Assess the existing organisational culture.

ii. Set clear objectives for cultural change.

iii. Introduce change at the top management level first.

iv. Gradually spread the change throughout the organisation.

v. Involve employees in the change process.

vi. Win the confidence of employees.

vii. Deal with problems sympathetically.

viii. Continue the change process with persistence.

ix. Remove symbols and messages associated with the old culture.

x. Recruit new employees who can easily accept the new culture.

xi. Build momentum by acting quickly and decisively.

xii. Reduce resistance at the initial stage.

Thus, organisational culture should be changed carefully and systematically so that employees willingly accept the new values and practices. 

Q. 19. Can there be uniformity of culture throughout the organisation? Give reasons to your answer.

Answer: An organisation cannot have complete uniformity of culture throughout all its departments and groups. While there is generally a dominant culture that reflects the organisation's core values, different departments and groups develop their own sub-cultures based on their specific work, experiences and interactions. 

Reasons:

i. Employees have different perceptions, experiences and beliefs, so they interpret organisational culture differently.

ii. Every organisation has a dominant culture consisting of the core values shared by the majority of employees.

iii. Along with the dominant culture, several sub-cultures develop in different departments or work groups.

iv. If sub-cultures conflict with the dominant culture, they may weaken organisational unity and effectiveness.

v. A strong dominant culture reduces conflicts, increases cohesiveness, loyalty and commitment, and helps maintain greater cultural uniformity.

vi. A weak dominant culture allows sub-cultures to become stronger, reducing organisational unity and increasing disagreement among employees.

Therefore, complete uniformity of culture is not possible. What is possible is maintaining a strong dominant culture that aligns various sub-cultures with the organisation's overall values and objectives. 

Q. 20. "Stress is destructive"—Critically examine the statement.

Answer: The statement that "stress is destructive" is only partially correct. According to the study material, stress has both positive and negative effects depending on its intensity. Moderate stress motivates individuals, whereas excessive stress becomes harmful. Therefore, stress is not always destructive. 

Arguments supporting the statement:

i. Excessive stress creates distress and burnout.

ii. It damages physical and mental health.

iii. It reduces efficiency and productivity.

iv. It causes emotional imbalance and poor decision-making.

v. Long-term stress may lead to exhaustion and inability to cope with work.

Arguments against the statement

i. Moderate stress acts as constructive stress or eustress.

ii. It increases energy and creativity.

iii. It motivates individuals to achieve goals.

iv. It encourages better concentration and problem-solving.

v. Challenge stressors improve performance and personal growth.

Critical evaluation:

According to Robbins, stressors are of two types:

(i) Challenge stressors motivate employees and improve performance.

(ii) Hindrance stressors obstruct performance and create dissatisfaction.

Similarly, low stress makes life dull and unproductive, moderate stress improves performance, while excessive stress causes distress and burnout. Therefore, stress should be maintained at an optimum level rather than eliminated completely.

Hence, the statement "Stress is destructive" is not entirely true because only excessive stress is destructive, whereas moderate stress is beneficial. 

Q. 21. Discuss the organisational sources of stress.

Answer: Organisational stress arises from conditions existing within the workplace. According to the study material, almost every aspect of work can become a stressor depending on the employee and the nature of the job. 

Major organisational sources of stress are:

(i) Role ambiguity:

It arises when employees are not clear about their duties, responsibilities or performance expectations. Lack of clarity creates confusion and stress.

(ii) Role conflict:

Role conflict occurs when different people expect different things from the same employee or when multiple roles conflict with each other.

(iii) Role overload:

Employees experience stress when workload is excessive, deadlines are unrealistic and multiple tasks must be completed simultaneously.

(iv) Role underload:

Too little work also causes stress because employees feel their abilities are underutilised and they lose interest in work.

(v) Ineffective communication:

Poor communication creates misunderstandings, rumours, uncertainty and confusion regarding organisational policies and job responsibilities.

(vi) Job change:

Frequent organisational changes, technological changes, redesign of jobs and changes in products require employees to adjust continuously, thereby creating stress.

Apart from these, demanding work conditions, unrealistic targets, inadequate resources and changing organisational expectations also contribute to workplace stress. Thus, organisational stress mainly results from unclear roles, excessive or insufficient workload, communication problems and organisational change. 

Q. 22. How can one get the alarm of stress? What are the ultimate impacts of stress?

Answer: Hans Selye explained stress through the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS), which consists of three stages:

(i) Alarm stage:

This is the first warning signal of stress.

(ii) Resistance stage:

The body attempts to adapt and maintain balance.

(iii) Exhaustion stage:

If adaptation fails, the body becomes exhausted and severe stress develops. 

Alarm signals of stress: The important warning signs include:

i. Increased respiration rate.

ii. Rise in blood pressure.

iii. Disturbance of digestion.

iv. Loosening of bowel movement.

v. Dilation of pupils.

vi. Tensed muscles.

vii. Increased saliva production.

viii. Increased hormone production.

ix. Rise in blood sugar level.

Ultimate impacts of stress:

(a) On individuals:

i. Physical illness.

ii. Mental exhaustion.

iii. Anxiety and frustration.

iv. Burnout.

v. Reduced job satisfaction.

vi. Emotional imbalance.

vii. Poor work performance.

viii. Withdrawal behaviour.

(b) On organisations

i. Lower productivity.

ii. Increased absenteeism.

iii. Higher employee turnover.

iv. Poor quality of work.

v. Reduced morale.

vi. Greater industrial conflict.

vii. Increased organisational costs.

Thus, early recognition of alarm symptoms is essential to prevent stress from reaching the exhaustion stage and causing serious personal and organisational consequences. 

Q. 23. Explain the ways that an individual can adopt to control stress.

Answer: Stress management requires individuals to adopt healthy physical, psychological and behavioural practices. According to the study material, personal strategies play an important role in controlling stress. 

Important personal strategies are:

i. Develop positive thinking and maintain an optimistic attitude.

ii. Improve time management by setting priorities and avoiding unnecessary delays.

iii. Maintain physical fitness through regular exercise.

iv. Follow healthy food habits and maintain proper nutrition.

v. Get adequate sleep and sufficient rest.

vi. Practise relaxation techniques such as meditation, yoga and deep breathing.

vii. Avoid smoking, alcohol and other harmful addictions.

viii. Build supportive relationships with family, friends and colleagues.

ix. Learn to accept change and adjust to new situations.

x. Develop confidence and problem-solving abilities.

xi. Set realistic goals and avoid unnecessary perfectionism.

xii. Take regular breaks from work and maintain a proper work-life balance.

xiii. Seek counselling or professional help whenever stress becomes difficult to manage.

By adopting these personal strategies, individuals can reduce stress, improve physical and mental health, increase job satisfaction and achieve better overall performance.

Subject: Organizational Behaviour (PGCO – I)

Course: PGDP – NSOU M.Com.

Unit VIII: Organisational Development 

Q. 1. What stands for T-group in OD intervention?

Answer: T-group stands for Training Group. It is also known as Sensitivity Training or Laboratory Training. In this method, a small group of about ten to fifteen participants interact freely in an open and unstructured environment under the guidance of a facilitator. The objective is to increase sensitivity towards others' behaviour, improve listening skills, openness, empathy, tolerance and conflict-resolution abilities. 

Q. 2. How is 1.9 style of management known under grid concept?

Answer: Under Blake and Mouton's Managerial Grid Concept, the 1.9 style of management is known as Country Club Management. In this style, managers show high concern for people and low concern for production. Employee welfare and satisfaction are given priority over task accomplishment. 

Q. 3. How is the combination of functional and product structure called?

Answer: The combination of functional and product structure is called the Matrix Structure. It combines the advantages of functional specialisation and product-based coordination by superimposing product departments over functional departments. This structure improves flexibility, adaptability and coordination while reducing the disadvantages of both structures. 

Q. 4. What does QWL stand for?

Answer: QWL stands for Quality of Work Life. It refers to improving employees' motivation, satisfaction and commitment by creating a work environment that is safe, meaningful, interesting and supportive of personal growth. It aims to humanise the workplace and enhance employees' overall well-being. 

Q. 5. Name any two key components of TQM.

Answer: Any two key components of Total Quality Management (TQM) are:

i. System

ii. Process

The other two components mentioned in the unit are People and Management. 

Q. 6. Mention any two barriers to managing diversity.

Answer: Any two barriers to managing diversity are:

i. Prejudice – Unjustified negative attitude towards a person, race or gender.

ii. Stereotypes – Believing that all members of a group possess the same characteristics.

Other barriers mentioned in the unit include ethnocentrism, discrimination, harassment and backlash. 

Q. 7. Give full form of B2B.

Answer: B2B stands for Business to Business. It refers to electronic business transactions that take place between one business organisation and another business organisation. 

Q. 8. Name two means of promoting ethics.

Answer: Any two means of promoting ethics are:

i. Developing and enforcing a Code of Ethics.

ii. Providing Ethics Training and Education to employees.

These measures encourage ethical behaviour and strengthen ethical standards within the organisation. 

Q. 9. Define OD.

Answer: Organisational Development (OD) is a planned, organisation-wide and systematic process of change that is managed from the top to improve organisational effectiveness and health through planned interventions in organisational processes. It helps organisations adapt successfully to changes in the internal and external environment. 

Q. 10. What do you mean by organic structure?

Answer: Organic structure is a flexible, decentralised and less bureaucratic organisational structure that enables an organisation to respond quickly to environmental changes. It has low formalisation, fewer hierarchical levels, greater employee autonomy and better communication, making it suitable for innovation and organisational development. 

Q. 11. Distinguish between job enlargement and job enrichment.

Answer: Job enlargement and job enrichment are two important techniques of job redesign used in organisational development to improve employee motivation, satisfaction and productivity. Although both are intended to make jobs more meaningful, they differ in their nature and objectives.

Job enlargement refers to increasing the number of tasks assigned to an employee at the same level of responsibility. It is a horizontal expansion of the job, where additional duties of similar nature are added to reduce monotony and increase job variety. However, the employee's authority, responsibility and decision-making power generally remain unchanged.

Job enrichment, on the other hand, refers to increasing the depth of a job by assigning higher-level responsibilities and greater authority to the employee. It is a vertical expansion of the job that provides more autonomy, decision-making power, accountability and opportunities for personal growth. The objective is to make the work more challenging and satisfying.

Thus, job enlargement focuses on increasing the quantity and variety of work at the same level, whereas job enrichment focuses on increasing the quality of work by giving employees greater responsibility and control over their jobs.

According to the study material, job enlargement gives additional jobs of the same level to workers, whereas job enrichment means providing jobs of a higher level. It also states that effective job redesign should follow the Job Characteristic Model by promoting employee autonomy, participation and flexibility. 

Q. 12. Define "quality circle".

Answer: A Quality Circle (QC) is a small group of employees who voluntarily meet on a regular basis to identify, analyse and solve problems related to the quality of the work they perform. Each quality circle generally focuses on a particular work area, and an organisation may have several quality circles functioning simultaneously.

Quality circles form an important part of Quality of Work Life (QWL) programmes. They encourage employee participation, teamwork, creativity and continuous improvement. By involving employees directly in solving workplace problems, quality circles improve job satisfaction, productivity, product quality and organisational effectiveness.

According to the study material, quality circles consist of small groups of employees who regularly meet on a voluntary basis to identify and solve work-related quality problems. 

Q. 13. Who are gold-collar employees?

Answer: Gold-collar employees are highly educated, exceptionally skilled and knowledge-intensive professionals who possess specialised expertise that is difficult to replace. They generally work in fields requiring innovation, creativity, research and advanced technical knowledge.

Examples include scientists, software engineers, doctors, management consultants, researchers, data scientists and highly qualified professionals.

Characteristics of gold-collar employees include:

i. Possess specialised knowledge and expertise.

ii. Perform intellectual rather than routine work.

iii. Solve complex organisational problems.

iv. Contribute significantly to innovation and strategic decision-making.

v. Expect challenging work, autonomy, continuous learning and career development.

vi. Receive comparatively higher compensation because of their valuable skills.

These employees are regarded as valuable organisational assets because they create competitive advantage through their knowledge and innovation.

Q. 14. Write a note on e-governance.

Answer: E-governance refers to the use of information and communication technology (ICT), especially computers and the internet, to improve the functioning of government by delivering public services efficiently, transparently and conveniently.

The objectives of e-governance are:

i. To improve the efficiency of government administration.

ii. To provide faster and better public services.

iii. To increase transparency and accountability.

iv. To reduce corruption through digital systems.

v. To encourage citizen participation in governance.

vi. To ensure easy access to government information and services.

Major components of e-governance include:

i. Government to Citizen (G2C): Online services such as tax payment, certificates, passports and utility bill payments.

ii. Government to Business (G2B): Digital licensing, taxation, procurement and regulatory services.

iii. Government to Government (G2G): Electronic communication and coordination among government departments.

iv. Government to Employee (G2E): Online payroll, leave management, pension and employee services.

Advantages of e-governance include:

i. Faster service delivery.

ii. Greater transparency.

iii. Lower administrative costs.

iv. Better record management.

v. Improved accessibility.

vi. Reduced paperwork.

vii. Higher public satisfaction.

Challenges include:

i. Digital divide.

ii. Cybersecurity threats.

iii. Lack of digital literacy.

iv. Resistance to technological change.

v. High implementation costs.

vi. Privacy and data protection concerns.

Thus, e-governance helps build an efficient, transparent and citizen-friendly administration through the effective use of digital technology.

Q. 15. How does performance appraisal lead to ethical dilemma?

Answer: Performance appraisal may create ethical dilemmas because managers are often required to balance fairness, organisational interests and personal relationships while evaluating employees. If ethical principles are ignored, the appraisal process loses its credibility.

Major ethical dilemmas include:

i. Personal Bias:

Managers may favour certain employees because of friendship, caste, gender, age or personal preferences instead of evaluating actual performance.

ii. Subjective Evaluation:

Ratings based on opinions rather than measurable performance may lead to unfair treatment.

iii. Manipulation of Ratings:

Supervisors may intentionally inflate or deflate ratings to reward favourites, punish disliked employees or satisfy management expectations.

iv. Conflict of Interest:

Managers may face pressure to protect departmental interests, reduce promotion costs or justify organisational decisions, leading to dishonest evaluations.

v. Lack of Transparency:

Employees may not understand how ratings are determined, creating mistrust and dissatisfaction.

vi. Confidentiality Issues:

Improper disclosure of appraisal information may violate employee privacy and professional ethics.

vii. Discrimination:

Unethical appraisals based on race, religion, gender, disability or other personal characteristics violate principles of equality and justice.

viii. Pressure from Higher Management:

Supervisors may be forced to alter ratings to fit predetermined quotas or organisational policies rather than actual performance.

ix. Impact on Employee Career:

Unfair appraisals may negatively affect promotions, salary increases, training opportunities and career development.

x. Loss of Trust:

If employees perceive the appraisal process as unfair or biased, morale, motivation and organisational commitment decline.

To avoid ethical dilemmas, organisations should adopt objective performance standards, maintain transparency, train appraisers, provide regular feedback, allow employee participation and establish an effective grievance redressal system. These measures help ensure that performance appraisal remains fair, unbiased and ethically sound.

Q. 16. What are the objectives and requisites of OD?

Answer: Organisational Development (OD) is a planned and systematic process of improving organisational effectiveness by developing people, strengthening organisational processes and creating a healthy work environment. According to the study material, the objectives and prerequisites of OD are as follows. 

Objectives of Organisational Development (OD)

i. To build interpersonal communication, support and trust at all levels of the organisation.

ii. To develop team spirit rather than encouraging only individual achievement.

iii. To encourage open discussion of organisational problems instead of hiding them or "sweeping them under the rug."

iv. To promote participative management where employees closest to the operations actively participate in decision-making.

v. To foster organisational commitment and develop employees' love and passion for organisational activities.

vi. To ensure personal accountability in group work so that social loafing and buck-passing are avoided.

vii. To help the organisation keep pace with changes in the external environment.

viii. To create a favourable environment for creativity and innovation.

ix. To strengthen the organisation so that it can successfully face severe competition.

x. To achieve long-term sustainability and organisational growth. 

Pre-requisites of Organisational Development:

i. Employees should possess a strong desire for personal growth and development.

ii. Individual goals should be integrated with organisational goals.

iii. Members should prefer cooperation over conflict.

iv. Mere agreement is not enough; genuine commitment towards change is essential.

v. Internal resources and employee skills should be continuously developed.

vi. Employees should be willing to accept and support organisational change.

vii. Active involvement and commitment of top management are essential during the initial stages.

viii. Organisational problems should be clearly identified so that OD efforts are directed towards solving them.

ix. The OD programme should be integrated with the organisation's overall human resource system.

x. Existing processes should be regularly monitored and evaluated to measure results and ensure continuous improvement. 

Q. 17. Give a brief discussion on OD interventions.

Answer: OD interventions are planned techniques used to improve organisational effectiveness by changing people, structures, technology and strategy. These interventions help organisations adapt to changing environments and improve employee performance and organisational health. The study material classifies OD interventions into four major categories. 

HR Management or People-focused Interventions:

These interventions aim at changing employees' attitudes, behaviour and interpersonal relationships. Major techniques include:

(i) Sensitivity or T-group Training develops openness, empathy, listening skills, tolerance and conflict resolution abilities.

(ii) Survey Feedback collects employee opinions through questionnaires and discusses the findings to identify organisational problems and improve attitudes.

(iii) Process Consultation involves an external consultant who helps managers diagnose organisational problems and improve work processes rather than directly solving problems.

(iv) Team Building improves cooperation within and between groups through goal setting, interpersonal relationship development, role analysis, process analysis and trust building.

Structural Interventions:

These interventions modify organisational structure to improve flexibility and efficiency. They include:

(i) Larger span of control and flatter structures.

(ii) Decentralisation of authority.

(iii) Organic organisational structures.

(iv) Matrix structures.

(v) Task-force structures.

(vi) Network structures.

(vii) Improved reward systems.

(viii) Changing organisational culture to support organisational goals.

Task-Technology Interventions:

These interventions improve jobs, work processes and technology. They include:

(i) Job redesign through job rotation, enlargement and enrichment.

(ii) Socio-technical systems that balance technology with employee needs.

(iv) Quality of Work Life (QWL) programmes.

(v) Total Quality Management (TQM) for continuous quality improvement.

Strategic Interventions:

Strategic interventions involve analysing existing strategies, selecting improved strategies, designing strategic change plans and implementing them effectively while controlling resistance to change. 

Q. 18. Discuss the Task-Technology interventions to OD.

Answer: Task-Technology interventions aim to improve the quality of work life by redesigning jobs and introducing suitable technologies that make work more meaningful, productive and satisfying. They focus on changing both work processes and the tools used by employees. 

The major Task-Technology interventions are:

(i) Job Redesign:

Job redesign modifies jobs to remove monotony and improve employee motivation and productivity. It is based on job analysis and includes:

(a) Job Rotation, where employees move from one job to another.

(b) Job Enlargement, where additional tasks of the same level are assigned.

(c) Job Enrichment, where employees receive higher-level responsibilities and greater autonomy.

The following the Job Characteristic Model, which promotes employee participation, autonomy and flexibility.

(ii) Socio-Technical System:

This intervention seeks a proper balance between technology and the social system. Technology includes machines, tools and equipment, while the social system includes employees and their relationships. OD practitioners ensure that technological changes do not ignore human needs and that both technological efficiency and employee satisfaction are optimised.

(iii) Quality of Work Life (QWL):

QWL aims to improve employee motivation, satisfaction and commitment by making work more meaningful. It mainly uses two approaches:

(iv) Work restructuring:

Quality Circles (QCs), where small groups voluntarily meet to identify and solve work-related problems.

QWL programmes also provide fair compensation, safe working conditions, opportunities for personal growth, work-life balance, respect for privacy and socially responsible organisational practices. These programmes improve job satisfaction, reduce absenteeism and turnover, increase productivity and contribute to organisational sustainability.

(v) Total Quality Management (TQM):

TQM is a continuous improvement process that reduces waste and improves quality through systematic improvement of systems, processes, people and management. It relies on statistical quality control, employee participation, continuous feedback and management commitment to achieve organisational excellence. 

Q. 19. Discuss the role of OD change agents in the context of technology transformation.

Answer: Technology transformation is one of the major emerging challenges faced by modern organisations. OD change agents play a vital role in helping organisations successfully adopt technological changes while ensuring that employees adapt effectively to the new work environment. According to the study material, their role includes the following. 

They redesign jobs to make them more challenging, interesting and productive through job rotation, job enlargement and job enrichment.

They ensure that technology is properly integrated with the organisation's social system through socio-technical interventions so that technological efficiency does not reduce employee satisfaction.

They improve employees' quality of work life by redesigning work, introducing quality circles and creating motivating work environments.

They promote Total Quality Management to improve organisational systems, processes, employee capabilities and managerial effectiveness through continuous improvement.

They encourage employee participation, autonomy and flexibility during technological change to reduce resistance and increase acceptance.

They provide training and learning opportunities so employees develop the knowledge and skills required to work with new technologies.

They monitor the impact of technological changes, identify implementation problems and recommend corrective measures.

They help organisations remain competitive by encouraging innovation, productivity improvement and continuous adaptation to technological advancements. 

Q. 20. Narrate the ways and means of promoting ethical behaviour.

Answer: Promoting ethical behaviour has become an important responsibility of organisations because ethical conduct builds trust, improves organisational reputation and supports long-term sustainability. The study material emphasises several ways through which organisations can promote ethical behaviour. 

Top management should demonstrate ethical leadership by practising honesty, fairness and integrity in all organisational decisions.

The organisation should establish a clear code of ethics and communicate ethical standards to all employees.

Employees should receive regular ethics education and training so that they understand ethical responsibilities and can deal with ethical dilemmas.

Recruitment, performance appraisal, promotion and reward systems should encourage ethical conduct instead of rewarding only results.

Open communication should be promoted so that employees can freely report unethical practices without fear of retaliation.

Organisations should ensure fairness, transparency and accountability in decision-making and organisational policies.

Managers should create a culture based on trust, respect, participation and social responsibility so that ethical values become part of organisational culture.

Organisations should continuously monitor ethical practices, investigate unethical behaviour promptly and take appropriate disciplinary action whenever necessary.

By following these measures, organisations can build a strong ethical culture, improve employee commitment, strengthen stakeholder confidence and ensure sustainable organisational development.